88th Session |
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ILC88 - Report of the Director-General: Activities of the ILO, 1998-99 (...continued) |
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2. Promoting employment and combating poverty
Employment strategies
Partnerships with multilateral
organizations
If the benefits of development are to be extended to increasingly broad categories of the population, as they must be in a more democratic world, employment and social issues need to be given due weight by macroeconomic and financial policy-makers. But there are great difficulties in advocating social issues in a context of unchecked globalization and political short-termism.
It was therefore encouraging that the ILO was gradually able to make its voice heard more strongly during the biennium at the international level. It did so through its analysis of the Asian crisis, at the meetings of the G8 and, to a greater extent as the biennium progressed, within the international financial institutions, as well as at the World Trade Organization Conference in Seattle in November 1999.
In February 1999 the then Director-General Michel Hansenne and Director-General elect Juan Somavia made a presentation on labour policies in a rapidly changing global environment to the G8 Labour Ministers Conference, held in Washington, DC. High-level dialogue between the ILO and senior executives of the Bretton Woods institutions took place in Washington in October 1998.
Since his election Mr. Somavia has maintained regular contact with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), both of which sent high-level representation to the Governing Body debates in March 1999 on ILO action in response to crisis situations. The ILO now has observer status on both the IMF Interim Committee and the IMF/World Bank Development Committee.
Although much still remains to be done, the various crises which had to be addressed during the biennium, including in particular the Asian and other financial crises, the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch and the reconstruction of Kosovo all served to reinforce cooperation between the ILO, the international financial institutions and other United Nations agencies.
Employment and the Copenhagen +5 process
Efforts to influence the policy environment at the international and national levels included the organization of four regional follow-up meetings to the World Summit for Social Development. These were held in Abidjan, Bangkok, Beirut and Budapest. All of these meetings agreed on the necessity of integrating social and economic concerns in policy-making and on the centrality of employment promotion in any economic strategy. They also agreed on the need for active labour market policies and programmes and for ministries of labour to collect and disseminate labour market information and to target employment programmes on vulnerable groups. The effective design of social safety nets was a common concern, as was the need for tripartite consensus on the form and implementation of structural adjustment and other economic reform programmes.
The regional meetings also provided valuable inputs to the International Consultation concerning Follow-up on the World Summit for Social Development, held in Geneva in November 1999. This meeting reviewed and assessed measures undertaken by States to give effect to the employment-related commitments under the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action; the ILO's contribution to the follow-up to the World Summit for Social Development; and the preparations for the Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly on the Implementation of the Outcome of the World Summit for Social Development and Further Initiatives, which, as requested by the General Assembly, will take place in Geneva in June 2000.
The International Consultation adopted a set of conclusions which reaffirmed the commitments of the Copenhagen Declaration with regard to employment generation and the reduction of poverty, and the ILO's central role in the global campaign for full employment. The International Consultation called on the ILO, in collaboration with the tripartite partners and the agencies of the United Nations system, to develop new operational initiatives in the employment policy field, and to organize a process of mutual learning and sharing of experience on successful employment and labour market policies.
Economic crisis, employment and poverty
A Seminar on Economic Crisis, Employment and Labour Market in East and South-East Asia was jointly organized by the ILO, the World Bank, the Japanese Ministry of Labour and the Japan Institute of Labour. The seminar discussed the employment and labour market challenges posed by the Asian economic crisis, and examined policy options for the future and the roles of government, and employers' and workers' organizations in addressing the issues. The seminar was structured around five country case studies and four thematic papers, edited versions of which, along with a short introductory chapter, will be published jointly by the World Bank and the ILO.
Employment policy reviews
Other important instruments used by the ILO to provide policy guidance included reviews of national employment policy.
One set of employment policy reviews covered four smaller OECD countries (Austria, Denmark, Ireland and the
Netherlands), which have been relatively successful in recent years in either reducing unemployment or maintaining
comparatively low unemployment rates through the adoption of innovative employment and labour market policies.(1)
Employment policy reviews were also undertaken in several developing countries (Barbados, Brazil, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya,
Pakistan and Thailand) and one transition country (Ukraine).(2)
Ukraine -- Country employment policy review The country employment policy review (CEPR) for Ukraine identified the following main labour market problems:
The CEPR outlined a set of policies to promote demand for labour and employment, improve the quality of employment, stimulate sound enterprise restructuring, assist the unemployed in finding new jobs and protect them against poverty. Institutional changes and policies were recommended to stimulate growth and job generation in small and medium-sized enterprises. An action programme was proposed to address the non-payment of wages. Local development initiatives were identified as a primary approach towards restoring sound economic development in crisis regions and were piloted in the Chernobyl region. Many ideas and recommendations proposed in the report have been used in national discussions reviewing the labour legislation. The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection and the National Employment Service are also making good use of the policy recommendations. Agreed follow-up activities, including technical assistance to strengthen the capacity of the National Employment Service and help the Slavutich region create new jobs for workers laid off from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, have become part of an ongoing ILO-Ukraine plan of cooperation. |
Youth employment and ageing
The ILO's other analytical work on employment policy issues covered a wide range of topics during the biennium. As a follow-up to the resolution concerning youth employment, adopted by the Conference at its 86th Session in 1998, an international strategy was developed setting out the manner in which youth employment would be promoted by the ILO, working closely with the social partners, the United Nations, NGOs and private agencies. The strategy focuses on facilitating the transition from school to work, strengthening training on youth employment issues and programmes, improving labour market data collection and information systems, promoting work-based training approaches as pathways to productive employment, fostering youth entrepreneurship and self-employment, and understanding the causes and consequences of long-term youth unemployment.
During the biennium, several other activities were undertaken on this subject. A number of studies on youth employment issues have been completed and several have been published.(3) An ILO website on youth employment has been set up. Discussions have begun with other agencies and institutions on possible areas of collaboration. A manual on the role of employers in promoting youth employment was being prepared and a Workshop on the Role of South Asian Employers in Promoting Youth Employment will be held in May 2000. National-level studies, workshops and policy development activities have been initiated in Brazil and Fiji.
Action programme: Strategies to combat youth marginalization and unemployment
Within the framework of the action programme on strategies to combat youth marginalization and unemployment, a strategy document(4) was prepared providing an assessment of the different types of policies and programmes adopted in developed as well as developing countries, and outlining strategies which could be adopted to tackle the problem of youth unemployment. This document formed the basis of a tripartite interregional symposium on the topic held in December 1999. The symposium provided an opportunity to debate what works, what does not and the types of programmes that would have a better possibility of success. The report and the conclusions of the symposium will help the ILO and its constituents in formulating and implementing future programmes on the issue of youth unemployment.
A study on the labour market consequences of the ageing of the population was also undertaken and presented at a major
conference on the subject in Tokyo.
Older women workers There is emerging evidence that working women are experiencing a redefined application of age and sex discrimination, so that the concept of an "older" woman in the world of work now includes women as young as 35. In addition, women currently comprise the majority of the over-60 population in virtually all countries worldwide. In many industrialized countries nearly one in four women is over 60 years of age, while in at least 75 developing countries the number of women over 60 is projected to increase by more than 150 per cent within the next 25 years. Older women face different circumstances and challenges from men as they age, in many aspects of life, including the world of work. Despite this, there is scant acknowledgement, information or research on "older" women workers. Recognizing this, the international programme on More and Better Jobs for Women initiated a research project to explore the interaction of age and sex discrimination, and to contribute to the debate on the legislative and policy measures which need to be implemented by the social partners in an ageing society from the perspective of older women workers. The research analysed the impact of social security reform on older women, discussed the merits of a rights-based approach through specific examples, and identified and examined the myriad of discriminatory constraints experienced by older women workers throughout the employment process, from recruitment, selection, training and promotion to redundancy and termination. Good practices and policies designed to encourage the increased participation of older women workers were also identified. The report will be published early in January 2000, and the information will be incorporated in a website and CD-ROM on equal employment opportunity policies. |
Action programme: Structural adjustment, employment and the role of the social partners
The work carried out under the action programme on structural adjustment, employment and the role of the social partners focused on the employment effects of structural adjustment and the need for tripartite consultations in preparing adjustment programmes. National and regional seminars were held in Dakar, Abidjan, Harare, Delhi and Bogota to identify the priorities for trade unions and employers' organizations and emphasize the necessity for countries engaged in structural adjustment processes to set up tripartite institutions where the social partners can negotiate the policies applied.
Using national and international experience, the seminars highlighted the contribution which employers' and workers' organizations can make to the design of structural adjustment programmes, as well as to the implementation of policies to minimize their adverse social effects. The seminars reviewed the consequences of achieving, or failing to achieve, social consensus ahead of major economic decisions. They emphasized such institutional features as the participation of employers' and workers' organizations in preliminary discussions, and the need for contingency planning between ministries of finance and labour, jointly with the social partners, to prepare for possible significant changes in policies and to assess their social implications.
In some countries, such as India and Zimbabwe, national tripartite pacts were proposed in which employment and social goals would be specified, trade-offs identified and all possibilities for domestic resource mobilization considered. In Mali preparations were made to discuss with donors the possible funding of programmes to enhance the capacity of the social partners to analyse proposals for structural adjustment.
Jobs for Africa
One of the most ambitious projects carried out by the ILO in recent years to develop a job-creation policy framework, supported by operational programmes, is the Jobs for Africa programme, which has been operational since July 1998. Initially covering ten countries with UNDP financing, it was subsequently extended to another six African countries.
Aimed at stimulating employment-intensive growth in such areas as agriculture, small and medium-sized enterprises and the informal sector, the Jobs for Africa programme operates at both the national and regional levels. It also includes a component on employment for peace, designed to help countries emerging from conflict to reintegrate the affected groups and rebuild their communities. The initiative has received broad endorsement, for example from the African Employment Planners Meeting held in Abidjan in February 1999 and the OAU Labour and Social Affairs Commission, which met in Windhoek in April 1999 (see Chapter 5 for details).
More and better jobs for women
Launched as part of the ILO's contribution to the follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995), the international programme on More and Better Jobs for Women focuses on eliminating the discrimination experienced by poor and vulnerable women who are unemployed or underemployed or who work under unproductive, exploitative or abusive conditions. It has a clear central message that "more and better jobs for women" make good economic as well as social sense, and that better jobs for women benefit not only women themselves, but also men, children, communities and society as a whole.
At the national level the programme developed national action plans to address the many interrelated problems faced by
women workers through a range of policy and targeted interventions, including gender-sensitive macroeconomic policy
advice, institutional capacity building, awareness raising and legal literacy, group organization, employment generation and
social protection. In Estonia, for example, a business opportunity identification exercise in one of the poorest counties has
identified a number of new areas for the economic participation of women.
Business opportunity identification for women In the context of a national action plan on More and Better Jobs for Women in Estonia, developed in collaboration with the social partners and women's organizations, a series of capacity-building and awareness-raising seminars was organized for governmental, regional and local authorities. In addition, a pilot business opportunity identification exercise took place in Valga county, a rural area in south-east Estonia which has one of the highest rates of female unemployment. An international expert worked closely with the local authorities to identify opportunities for enterprise development and employment generation. Rural tourism and alternative agricultural products were identified as the two sectors with the greatest potential. The textiles sector and information technology-based enterprises were seen as areas for further development. To take advantage of these opportunities, a skills and awareness-raising training programme has been organized for 2000 to provide a sound basis for the next phase of employment generation. A microfinance component facility will also be established to enable the women to start their own enterprises. |
In Mexico interventions were aimed at improving the working conditions of women in the maquila (export processing)
industries. In Pakistan surveys and awareness-raising workshops were undertaken as part of a broader ongoing project on
gender equality. Other technical cooperation projects were developed in response to particular problems at the national or
regional levels. For example, projects commenced to promote the linkages between women's employment and the reduction
of child labour in Bangladesh and the United Republic of Tanzania, and to combat the trafficking of women and children in
the Greater Mekong subregion (in collaboration with ILO-IPEC).
Addressing the economic and social bases of prostitution In 1998, at the Frankfurt Book Fair, an ILO publication* was awarded a prestigious publishing prize, the 1998 International Nike Award. The prize was launched in 1997 to honour non-fiction writing by women which contributes to the advancement of thinking about the situation of women in the world. It was awarded by a jury including women from five continents, all renowned for their writings and activism. The book has been translated into Japanese. It is based on four country case studies of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand and confronts the multiple and complex economic issues surrounding work in the sex business and the closely related issues of basic human rights, employment, working conditions, gender discrimination and exploitation. Prostitution and related businesses are estimated by the national researchers to generate from 2 to 14 per cent of GDP in the four countries, but the profits go to the business interests rather than to the women and child prostitutes who are the ones that are commercially sexually exploited. The study devotes a section to child prostitution, which it deems always involuntary and an intolerable form of child labour. It also identifies women and children who are trafficked across national borders as a particularly vulnerable group that very often ends up in forced prostitution. As a practical follow-up activity, the ILO is undertaking a project to combat trafficking of women and children into exploitative forms of labour in the Mekong subregion (see Chapter 1 for more details). * The sex sector: The economic and social bases of prostitution in Southeast Asia, L.L. Lim (ed.), 1998. |
At the international level the programme drew global attention to matters of growing concern through advocacy and the
generation and dissemination of information. A comprehensive information base on equal employment policies was
developed. A collaborative project with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) focused on a wide
range of good practices for the promotion of gender equality by trade unions within workers' organizations, at the workplace
and in the wider community.
Promoting gender equality with trade unions In collaboration with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), a manual of good practices on promoting gender equality within unions, at the workplace and in the wider community was published in early 2000. The manual is based on the survey results from 248 trade unions and national centres affiliated to the ICFTU. A preliminary report on the role of trade unions in promoting gender equality and protecting vulnerable women workers was presented at the ICFTU's 7th World Women's Conference in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil, May 1999). The report drew attention to the most important barriers to female membership of trade unions, namely:
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Key Indicators of the Labour Market
A wealth of information is available on the world's labour markets. However, up to now policy-makers and researchers have had to contend with difficulties of access, comparability and dispersion of the relevant data. It was in recognition of the growing need of governments and the social partners for timely, accurate and accessible information on the world's labour markets that the International Labour Conference in 1996 requested the Office to develop and disseminate an expanded range of relevant up-to-date labour market indicators as a basis for better informed policy decisions.
The response was the compilation and publication in 1999 of the ILO's 18 Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). The primary sources of data for the KILM are the compilations held by international organizations, such as EUROSTAT, OECD, UNIDO and the World Bank. Only when the necessary data are not available from international repositories is information sought directly from regional or national sources. While an intensive effort has been made to ensure that the indicators cover as many countries as possible, not all countries are in a position to provide data for each indicator. For example, KILM 4 (employment by sector) includes information for almost 200 countries, while KILM 16 (hourly compensation costs) only covers 29 countries.
The KILM are available through a publication and a CD-ROM, which will be accompanied by a country profile report.(5) A
special KILM page on the ILO website has also been established.
The 18 Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM) KILM 1 Labour force participation rate |
Figures for annual hours worked
When the KILM were first issued in September 1999, the comparative statistics of hours of work caught the attention of the media, especially in the industrialized countries. They show, for example, that annual hours of work in the United States are the longest in the industrialized countries and, at 1,966 hours a year, have risen 4 per cent since 1980. Japanese workers also work long hours, although the figure of 1,889 hours a year is 10 per cent down on the 1980 level. In Western Europe total average hours of work tend to be less and have been declining steadily over recent years, especially in the Scandinavian countries. In Norway and Sweden, for example, the annual hours worked in 1997 were 1,399 and 1,552 respectively.
***A00F02-e.eps
KILM data can be presented graphically to demonstrate a host of current labour market issues. The figure below is an example. It depicts the typical regional age patterns of labour force participation for women. The female rates of labour force participation by age group exhibit more variations among countries in different regions than the male patterns. The differences are both in levels and in slopes. The data for Burkina Faso (1995) show one of the highest female labour force participation rates in the world at 73.7 per cent (15 to 24 years), 83.5 per cent (25 to 54 years), 72.2 per cent (55 to 64 years) and 42 per cent (65 years and over). Only at the prime ages (25 to 54 years) do the female rates for certain transition economies, such as the Russian Federation, surpass the African rates.
***A00F03-e.eps
Labour statistics
16th International Conference of Labour Statisticians
Labour statistics play an important role, in an increasingly numerate and globalized world, in guiding labour and social policy-making at the national and international levels. The ILO is a major player in this respect, by developing international standards which ensure the comparability of labour statistics in the various areas, assisting member States develop their capacity to produce labour statistics, and making available to users worldwide the most important labour statistics for as many countries as possible.
The basic framework is established by the Labour Statistics Convention, 1985 (No. 160), and its accompanying Recommendation (No. 170). The guidelines on the production of statistics covering particular labour issues take the form of the resolutions adopted over the years by successive International Conferences of Labour Statisticians (ICLS). The 16th ICLS, held in Geneva in October 1998, marked an important stage in the ILO's work in this area, in terms both of the number of resolutions adopted and of the number of participants.(6) The resolutions adopted were as follows:
- resolution concerning the measurement of underemployment and inadequate employment situations;
- resolution concerning the measurement of employment-related income;
- resolution concerning statistics of occupational injuries resulting from occupational accidents.
Sets of guidelines were also endorsed on the treatment in employment and unemployment statistics of persons on extended absences from work, and dissemination practices for labour statistics.
The adoption of the above international standards and guidelines means that member States have at their disposal new sets
of methodological and technical tools to collect and analyse statistical information for policy-making, etc., which they can use
in the areas of labour market developments, conditions of work and income related to employment. The latter is important in
analysing the income-related capacity of different economic activities and the economic well-being of persons on the basis of
the employment opportunities available to them.
Labour force survey programme in Bhutan As a result of the technical advice provided to the Central Statistical Organization of the Royal Government of Bhutan, a labour force survey programme was launched in April 1998 to collect statistics on the economically active population, employment, unemployment and underemployment in line with the international standards on these topics. The survey was conducted in April 1998 on the basis of a representative sample of 8,000 households in urban and rural areas of Bhutan. The data were processed between July and November 1998 and the preliminary results reviewed in December 1998. Plans were made for the publication of the final results in 1999. While Bhutan is not a member State of the ILO, authorization was obtained to provide this technical advice as a sign of the type of benefits Bhutan would receive if it were to join the Organization. |
Occupational injuries
Another field of labour statistics in which important progress was made during the biennium was statistics of occupational accidents. A Meeting of Experts on Labour Statistics: Occupational Injuries (March-April 1998) made a number of recommendations which were taken into account in the preparation of the draft resolution discussed at the 16th ICLS. This resolution provides comprehensive guidelines for the production of statistics aimed specifically at meeting the needs of accident prevention. It contains new operational definitions of occupational accidents and injuries, as well as updated classifications, and advocates the use of different sources of information, particularly surveys of households and establishments.
The 16th ICLS recommended the continuation of developmental work in this field, with a view to the preparation of a technical manual on the subject. As part of this follow-up work, new methodologies were developed for the collection of basic information on occupational injuries from sources other than notification systems. These methodologies are being tested in three countries.
Informal sector
Statistical data on the informal sector provide an important basis for evidence-based policy-making and advocacy for the large number of workers engaged in informal sector activities. The aim of ILO activities in this area is to promote the development of informal sector statistics on the basis of the resolution adopted by the 15th ICLS in 1993, to help countries produce more and better statistics on the informal sector and to enhance the international comparability of the data produced.
In May 1999 the ILO presented papers on the statistical definition of the informal sector to the international Expert Group on Informal Sector Statistics (Delhi group), which was constituted in 1997 as one of the "city groups" reporting to the Statistical Commission. The meeting adopted a set of recommendations to enhance the international comparability of informal sector statistics.
The ILO is currently the only international organization which maintains a database containing statistical data and related
methodological information on the informal sector. The database covers countries of all regions where informal sector
activities are significant in terms of employment creation and income generation.
Extending the scope of labour force statistics in Colombia As a result of the technical advice provided to the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) of Colombia, a number of changes were made to the rural labour force survey. These included:
In 1999 DANE also launched a pilot continuous labour force survey in Santafé de Bogota, which was later extended to cover other urban areas. An international seminar on the measurement of underemployment was hosted by DANE in November 1999 with a view to the replication of the Colombian experience of labour force surveys in other countries in the region. |
The ILO presented a paper, and chaired a meeting in August 1999, on surveying and estimating the informal sector at the request of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) as part of its 52nd Session in Helsinki. In terms of the number and level of participants, the biennial ISI sessions are the most important statistical meetings in the world.
During 1999 technical assistance on the design and conduct of informal sector surveys was provided to a number of
countries and territories, including Armenia, Colombia, Georgia, Turkey, Ukraine and the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Experience gained from this assistance will be used as an input for the preparation of a manual on informal sector surveys for
labour and other statisticians on the concepts and methods of informal sector measurement, which will be published during
the next biennium. In addition, technical advisory services on other aspects of labour statistics were provided to nearly 30
countries.
Georgia -- labour force survey The activities carried out between 1996 and 1999 within the framework of a technical assistance project to Georgia in the field of labour statistics have enabled the State Department for Statistics of Georgia to:
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Ukraine -- labour force survey Technical advice has been provided since 1992 to the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine to assist in the design and conduct of a national labour force survey aimed at providing statistical data on employment, unemployment and underemployment in line with international standards and current practices in market economy countries. The survey was conducted for the first time in 1995 and has since been repeated on an annual basis. Based on the experience gained, improvements of the survey questionnaire and sample design were introduced. As from 1997 the data obtained from the labour force survey have replaced the figures derived from the administrative records of the state employment offices as the official unemployment figures for Ukraine. In 1999 the frequency of the labour force survey was increased. It is now being conducted on a quarterly basis in order to satisfy the need of data users for more frequent labour force statistics. Moreover, the Ukrainian labour force survey has evolved over the years as an instrument to which special surveys on related topics can be attached. A module on unregistered and informal sector employment was attached to the survey in 1997, and a child labour survey in 1999. Statistical information on these topics had not been collected previously. |
Child labour statistics
Work continued during the biennium on the development of statistical methods and data on child labour. The Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC) was launched in January 1998 by ILO-IPEC and provided an important element in the ILO's advocacy work at the international level and in guiding action by member States (see Chapter 1 for more information).
ILO publications of labour statistics
The ILO continued to make available to users worldwide important series of labour statistics for a broad range of countries, through both its website and its publications. The major publications are the Yearbook of Labour Statistics, the quarterly Bulletin of Labour Statistics and its special annual supplement Statistics on Occupational Wages and Hours of Work and on Food Prices: October Inquiry Results. Over the past decade labour statistics systems and the underlying methods of data collection in the transition countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the former USSR have changed radically. In response to this transformation, two publications were produced covering transition countries. The first was a special edition of the Sources and methods series,(7) providing users with a description of the new sources and methods used in 26 transition countries for the compilation of the data published in the Yearbook of Labour Statistics. The second was a translation in Russian and Ukrainian of a technical guide originally published in English during the previous biennium on sources, methods, classifications and policies for labour statistics in transition countries.(8)
Training
World Employment Report
The ILO's flagship employment and social policy document is its biennial World Employment Report. The issue which was published in September 1998 (9) focused on the question of employability in a global economy and the important role played by training in equipping workers for rapidly changing skill requirements. The report emphasizes that around 1 billion workers, or one-third of the world's workforce, are unemployed or underemployed and points out that, despite economic growth in many parts of the world, employment levels have risen in recent years only in the United States and to some degree in the European Union. It stresses that worker training offers the single best way of creating conditions for resolving the problem.
The report adds that, before the onset of the financial crisis in the region, training and education had been at the heart of South-East Asia's economic miracle and could well provide a way out of underdevelopment and poverty for millions of workers in other parts of the world.
In preparation for the general discussion on human resources training and development at the 2000 Session of the Conference, four regional tripartite consultative meetings in 1999 provided an opportunity to assess relevant human resources development needs, issues and trends in the regions. The Conference report on the subject(10) focuses on major training policy issues, including:
- the concept of employability in the context of the changing economic, labour market and social environ- ment and the corresponding demand for new skills and competences;
- recent reform efforts undertaken by governments and by employers' and workers' organizations and other actors in training for improved effectiveness and social equity;
- the roles and responsibilities of various parties in policy-making, and in financing and providing training.
Following its general discussion, the Conference may make recommendations as to the ILO's future standard-setting activities in the human resources training and development area.
In response to the Governing Body's decision that the general discussion should also cover the issue of youth employment and training, the report analyses youth employment in various countries and examines how integrated employment and training policies could improve their chances of finding stable employment. It is important to link basic education, initial training, vocational training, and continuing training in building and maintaining individual employability in rapidly changing labour markets. The ILO and UNESCO are also developing a common policy framework on technical and vocational education and training.
With a view to the adoption of innovative approaches to vocational training, particularly for the unemployed, materials were
disseminated on the results of research and pilot activities. Technical cooperation projects were also carried out to assist
countries to introduce flexible training methodologies. One example was Ukraine, where flexible training programmes based
on the ILO's modules of employable skills were introduced.
Modular training approach -- Ukraine To help resolve the acute unemployment problem in Ukraine, a project was implemented to train and retrain unemployed persons using an innovative competency-based modular training approach. The project established a national intersectoral resource centre for modular training and set up a network of key training institutions applying modular training. More than 100 professionals have been trained in the modular concept and in the development and implementation of modular training programmes. As a result, modular training is now becoming an important component of the national vocational training system. The second phase of the project consisted of the practical application of flexible modular programmes to train the unemployed and to promote employment. The project also contributed to the Government's strategy on preventing the spread of poverty by piloting specialist demand-driven training and support schemes in selected areas to promote self-employment and income generation for local people, especially women. Specific assistance was also provided to regions with particularly tense employment situations, such as the town of Slavutich in the Chernobyl area. |
Many of the countries covered by the Jobs for Africa programme requested the inclusion of training components in their national programmes. A report on training in Africa was presented to the Meeting of African Employment Planners and a large number of African countries received technical assistance to formulate vocational training policies for the formal and informal sectors, prepare and implement strategic action plans for vocational training or develop legislation and financing systems (see Chapter 5 for details).
Enterprise development
For several biennia the ILO has been building up its capacity to help constituents develop enterprises. The assistance offered focuses on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which are responsible for a large proportion of the new jobs created in member States. Demand continued to increase during the biennium for the ILO's policy advisory services and technical cooperation in this important area, inter alia as part of its response to crisis situations.
The ILO continued to play an active role in influencing inter-agency collaboration for SME promotion, particularly through the leading part that it plays in the Committee of Donor Agencies for Small Enterprise Development. At the three conferences organized by the committee during the biennium, the ILO continued to encourage better standards of good practice and impact in business development services, such as training. The ILO also hosts the committee's website, which contains guidelines on good practice and extensive case studies covering the work of the many donor agencies worldwide.
Recommendation No. 189
Two important events during the biennium marked the continued consolidation of the ILO's capacity in the field of enterprise
development. The first of these was the adoption by the Conference in 1998 of the Job Creation in Small and Medium-Sized
Enterprises Recommendation (No. 189). Recommendation No. 189 provides the ILO with a mandate to strengthen its small
enterprise development activities, particularly by helping constituents develop a policy framework in which the administrative
and other institutional difficulties faced by small enterprises are minimized.
Recommendation No. 189 The adoption of the Job Creation in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Recommendation, 1998 (No. 189), provided the ILO with official endorsement of the approach to enterprise development that it had been developing over a number of years. Based on the application of international labour standards, the Recommendation advocates enterprise-based job creation through action at three levels:
The Recommendation emphasizes that "small and medium-sized enterprises provide the potential for women and other traditionally disadvantaged groups to gain access under better conditions to productive, sustainable and quality employment opportunities". It calls for member States to work in close dialogue and cooperation with the most representative employers' and workers' organizations associated with SMEs. It also encourages member States to use national and international networks which facilitate the exchange of information, experience and best practice. |
At least two countries (Norway and Ukraine) have already submitted Recommendation No. 189 to their parliaments.
Guidelines were also prepared for the design and review of small enterprise policies, laws and regulations. Moreover, the
ILO helped several countries, including Fiji and Morocco, to develop processes in which all the interested parties are
involved in identifying the constraints faced by small enterprises and developing a policy framework which encourages their
development.
Developing a conducive environment for SME growth The ILO helped several countries set up a participatory approach to the improvement of conditions for the development of SMEs, including:
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ISEP
The second important event which occurred during the biennium to strengthen the ILO's work on enterprise development was the launching in June 1998 of the International Small Enterprise Development Programme (ISEP). The aim of ISEP is to consolidate and expand further the ILO's activities in support of SMEs. The underlying concept of the global programme is the creation of decent work through the systematic and effective integration of standards-related issues into business development, particularly through close collaboration with the field structure and the ILO's specialized programmes in such areas as child labour, occupational safety and health and social protection. For this purpose, ISEP has been structured into five main programme areas:
- policy support for SME development;
- job quality;
- business development services;
- training for small enterprise development;
- mainstreaming of a gender perspective throughout ISEP's activities.
Helping employers' and workers' organizations provide business development services Assistance continued to be provided by ISEP to employers' and workers' organizations to support the provision to their members of enterprise development services. As part of the ILO's response to the Asian financial crisis, employers' organizations in several Asian countries were assisted in the design, development and organization of productivity workshops for smaller enterprises. Workshops on productivity were held for trade union leaders in both English and French-speaking Africa. More specific examples of cooperation with employers' and workers' organizations include:
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Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB)
The existing "Start and Improve Your Business" (SIYB) programme is the principal component of ISEP's activities in the field of training for SME development. SIYB projects are currently being implemented in some 40 countries with ILO assistance. It is estimated that around 150,000 entrepreneurs have benefited from SIYB training, some 60 per cent of whom are women.
During the biennium, new SIYB projects were launched or consolidated in French-speaking West Africa, Kyrgyzstan, Viet Nam, Jordan and the West Bank and Gaza. In each case, this involved adapting the standard training materials to national law and practice, translating them (where necessary) and organizing training for the trainers in the local institutions that will give the courses. New departures included the promotion of distance learning through:
- the development of a CD-ROM version of SIYB materials;
- the production, with the European Broadcasting Union, of a series of business training modules to be broadcast in Eastern and Central European countries;
- the broadcasting of management skills development programmes on the radio in Viet Nam.
Combating child labour with SYB A joint programme was carried out with the International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in Turkey. The objective was to create viable income opportunities for poor families in rural areas to help them substitute the income from their working children. The strategy was to contribute to the gradual elimination of child labour by assisting in the creation of better income opportunities for the parents of the child labourers, by making the ILO's Start Your Business (SYB) programme available to those families that wished to set up a small enterprise. The strategy had three major components:
The preliminary results from this innovative pilot project in Sinop, Diybakir and Içel are encouraging, and preparations are under way to replicate the idea of using SYB as a strategy for combating child labour in an interregional project covering seven countries. |
Social protection for workers in SMEs
Another new aspect of ISEP's work has been its exploration of the potential of mutual associations, cooperatives and microfinance schemes to improve the conditions of workers in SMEs by offering them access to health care services and better safety and health conditions. Support was provided during the biennium to develop mutual health schemes in Dar es Salaam (United Republic of Tanzania) and in rural and urban areas in Uganda. The Tanzanian scheme now covers 3,000 workers and family members, while the Ugandan scheme covers nearly 1,000 workers. In return for less than US$1 a head per month, the members of the schemes are entitled to a range of free health care services at designated clinics, sometimes including secondary health care. The schemes are able to bargain with health care providers, organize preventive care for their members and provide instruction in simple safety precautions at work. In Kampala (Uganda), the project works exclusively with women's groups, who have shown greater commitment to collective action to improve living and working conditions.
Gender issues in SME development
The launching of ISEP provided the opportunity for a more rigorous mainstreaming of gender issues in the ILO's SME development activities. In addition to gender capacity building within the programme, information was collected on best practices in relation to programmes, policies and legal measures to promote and enable women's entrepreneurship. The findings of this work will be set out in guidelines on the policy and programme measures and institutional arrangements needed to assist women entrepreneurs seize new business opportunities, which will be published early in the biennium 2000-01.
In addition, several projects were carried out at the national level, (for example in Benin, Sao Tome and Principe and the
United Republic of Tanzania) to help develop SMEs run by women. The ILO also provided assistance to the United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to improve the effectiveness of its enterprise development programmes in
Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic and the West Bank.
Developing women's entrepreneurship Technical cooperation projects were undertaken, with ILO assistance, to promote entrepreneurship by women in:
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Enterprise Forum
Following the success of the first ILO Enterprise Forum in 1996, a second Enterprise Forum held in 1999 provided an
opportunity for entrepreneurs, senior managers, representatives of governments, employers' and workers' representatives,
academics and practitioners to discuss various aspects of the role of enterprises, governments and employers' and workers'
organizations in relation to job creation and other social objectives in a global economy.
Enterprise Forum 99 The ILO Enterprise Forum 99 was held in November 1999. It brought together some 600 CEOs, senior government policy-makers, representatives from workers' and employers' organizations, NGOs and academics. A report* has been published highlighting the main themes focused upon. The overall theme of the Forum was "A new spirit of enterprise for the 21st century: An in-depth look at new thinking about the place of business in the world and in the community". Sessions included a presentation by Mr. Charles Handy, renowned thinker on business and social issues, on "The challenges of the world ahead", as well as three technical sessions:
* Enterprise Forum 99: Summary of proceedings. 2000. |
Action programme on productivity improvement, competitiveness
and quality jobs in developing countries
Emphasis was placed on productivity improvement, competitiveness and quality jobs in developing countries in the context of an action programme, which focused on improving productivity in developing countries at the national and enterprise level through the adoption of the "high road" to productivity. The "high road" to productivity improvement consists of recognizing that productivity is an issue which concerns and benefits all those involved in the production process, including managers, workers and society at large. Materials were developed through the action programme, based on sectoral studies which highlight best practices.(11)
The materials produced were used in the Philippines and Thailand to develop national productivity improvement programmes based on the active participation of representatives of all the stakeholders. Assistance was provided to the tripartite constituents for the establishment of productivity centres in Kenya, Malawi, Senegal, Seychelles, Slovakia and Zimbabwe. The support provided included advice and training on the launching of productivity awareness campaigns, the development of supporting institutions, the review of the policy framework and the transfer of technology. Technical assistance was also provided to employers' and workers' organizations in various regions to help them in their productivity-related activities. The action programme resulted in collaboration with the Asian Productivity Organization to undertake studies of productivity issues in its 15 member countries.
Management development
The ILO's experience in the field of management development, combined with that of authors from highly reputed business schools, universities and consulting companies the world over, was compiled in a guide for the profession.(12) The book is designed to function as an international state-of-the-art guide for managers, management trainers, management consultants and human resources development professionals. It covers best practices in management development in companies and institutions in various countries and analyses the latest trends in the field of management training and development.
Socially responsible enterprise restructuring
In constantly changing and increasingly competitive markets, the failure of enterprises to adapt to their external environment can mean business failure and massive job losses. Restructuring needs to focus on all aspects of enterprise performance, including production structures and processes, the organization of work, managerial practices and systems, financial structures and ownership. But restructuring need not be unforeseen, sudden or painful. Change can be anticipated and managed so that social dislocations and costs are managed.
With a view to promoting enterprise restructuring practices which minimize the attendant social costs, pilot projects were
carried out in Belarus, Georgia, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. These projects were based on the organization of
tripartite multi-sectoral forums and workshops, followed by assistance in developing the restructuring plans at the enterprise
level. The best practices were documented and tested and guides and manuals are under development to disseminate the
concept of socially responsible enterprise restructuring.
Assistance in restructuring enterprises Pilot programmes to assist in the socially responsible restructuring of enterprises were carried out in several countries, including:
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Microfinance
One of the chief difficulties faced by workers who want to become self-employed or set up small or micro-enterprises is to obtain the necessary financing. During the biennium the ILO's activities in the important area of microfinance continued to expand and attracted greater attention, from both constituent and partner organizations.
Support was provided for the development of microfinance institutions and the design of legal and regulatory frameworks in
a significant number of countries throughout the world, particularly in West Africa, in China and in conflict- and
crisis-affected countries. A regional observatory was also established for the microfinance institutions in West Africa. The
observatory is the only source of regular, reliable and updated information on microfinance in the subregion and is unique in
Africa. The data collected show the changes from one year to another in such areas as average loan sizes, the percentage of
loans to women and performance in collecting very small deposits from the poor. The World Bank and the African
Development Bank are interested in replicating the observatory elsewhere in Africa.
Act on microfinance in West Africa The legislation on mutual and decentralized financial systems prepared by the West African Monetary Union, with ILO assistance, has now been adopted and ratified by all eight of its member countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo). The legislation protects small depositors' assets by setting standards for the registration and oversight of microfinance organizations. In return for a label of recognition and more favourable tax status, it sets out disclosure obligations on the diversification of loan portfolios, ceilings on insider lending and the frequency of internal and external audits. There are almost 200 microfinance institutions in the subregion:
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In an innovative research project, the central banks and other financial institutions in four African countries have linked up with institutions in the industrialized world. The research agenda, which is set by the research users, covers the access of the poor and small and micro-businesses to financial services in the context of financial sector liberalization. The aim of the research is to promote dialogue between the respective partners in the countries concerned, with a view to developing greater understanding of microfinance, improving access to small business loans and ensuring that central banks and ministries of finance build safeguards into their financial sector liberalization programmes so that the poor are not cut off from credit and savings.
Innovative financial instruments
The ILO's activities in the field of microfinance have also been of benefit to the industrialized countries. Through the action
programme on job creation through innovative financial instruments, the ILO influenced the design and stimulated business
start-up loan schemes for the young and unemployed in France and Germany. It also attracted trust funds for continued
policy-oriented research into self-employment programmes.
Self-employment schemes The action programme on job creation through innovative financial instruments influenced the establishment of self-employment schemes in:
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The steering groups in the countries participating in the action programme (Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States) identified a number of major issues with a view to making microfinance into a more effective instrument in helping the unemployed take up self-employment. These issues included who should receive subsidies and how subsidies should be delivered, the characteristics of good microfinance institutions and the role of the public authorities.
Innovative methodological work was carried out on the microfinance aspects of remittances from migrant workers and on using microfinance techniques to break the cycle of debt bondage. With a view to promoting best practice and international standards in the field of microfinance, the ILO has also continued to reinforce its partnerships with other interested institutions, particularly through the Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest (CAP) and the Micro-credit Summit. For example, in partnership with the UNHCR the ILO hosted a high-level technical workshop in 1999 with a view to developing a code of conduct on post-conflict microfinance.
Cooperatives
Over the years one of the ways in which the ILO has contributed most directly to improving the situation of the very poor, particularly in rural areas, is through its cooperative development programmes. The assistance provided is channelled through a series of externally funded technical advisory and cooperation programmes.
The most well established of these, ACOPAM, has been instrumental in improving the food security and living standards of a
large number of poor rural workers in the countries of the Sahel by organizing them into cooperative self-help groups, which
take the form of cooperatives, associations and mutual benefit groups. These have been involved in areas such as crop
marketing, access to financial services, social protection, gender equality and the management of natural resources. Through
its training activities and publications,(13) which are being used by hundreds of institutions throughout the French-speaking
world, ACOPAM has had a considerable influence on national laws and policies relating to cooperative development, food
security, rural finance and natural resource management.
The impact of ACOPAM in the Sahel Over the years, the ILO's ACOPAM programme, which provides organizational and cooperative support to grass-roots initiatives, has had a far-reaching impact in the countries of the Sahel:
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During the biennium, ACOPAM focused on consolidating its achievements through the development of self-managed producer associations. These associations help their members to manage natural resources in a more efficient and environmentally friendly manner, set up savings and credit schemes, establish grain storage facilities and cotton marketing outlets, and develop social services. A project was also prepared to apply the ACOPAM methodology on a wider scale in Africa. The INDISCO programme, which applies a similar methodology to indigenous peoples, reinforced its achievements during the biennium through project activities, particularly in India, the Philippines, Thailand, Viet Nam and several Central American countries.
Removing obstacles to cooperative development
Policy and regulatory obstacles are among the principal impediments to the development of strong and democratic cooperative enterprises and associations, particularly in countries with a tradition of centrally managed cooperatives. Through the COOPREFORM programme, a large number of countries have been provided with guidance in the redesign of cooperative policies and legislation. The strategy advocated by the programme is based on the principle that all the stakeholders, including cooperative members at the grass-roots level, should participate in the process of policy formulation and law-making. The tools used to achieve the programme's objectives include:
- technical advisory and consultancy missions;
- the development of universal tools, including policy manuals, law checklists and legal databases to facilitate the work of policy-makers and legislators;(14)
- the organization of national, regional and international workshops on cooperative policy, legislation and support services.
The reform of cooperative policies and legislation Since the COOPREFORM programme was launched in 1993, assistance has been provided for the revision and development of cooperative policies and legislation in 59 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Of these, to date:
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Networking between cooperative training institutions
A broad variety of activities was also undertaken by the COOPNET programme to strengthen cooperative human development, with particular emphasis on improving the competitiveness of cooperatives and mainstreaming gender issues. Requests for assistance from cooperative associations continued to rise and a large number of workshops, seminars, training activities and study visits were conducted. Parallel with the success of the publication on the application of modern management practices in the cooperative context,(15) publications were prepared containing guidance in other areas of cooperative management,(16) including gender promotion.(17) As a result it has been possible to improve networking between cooperative institutions at the national and international levels, new components have been added to many cooperative training courses and many institutions are now paying greater attention to gender issues.
Employment programmes for the poor
Another important instrument through which the ILO helps its constituents combat unemployment and poverty is its expertise in developing employment programmes for the poor. These featured strongly on each occasion that the ILO was called upon to respond to crisis situations and remained high on the list of priorities for constituents. Nevertheless, due to the reduced technical capacity at headquarters, it was not possible to respond fully or rapidly to all the requests made by constituents and donors in this area, and both delivery and new approvals of technical cooperation projects declined during the biennium.
Employment-intensive programmes (EIPs)
One of the most practical ways in which the ILO has helped constituents in developing countries to promote employment,
while creating such basic infrastructure as feeder roads, irrigation canals and drains, is through its employment-intensive
investment programmes. An independent thematic evaluation of the ILO's work in the field of employment-intensive policies
and projects was finalized in early 1998.(18) A policy paper(19) on recent experience and future orientation of the EIPs was
endorsed by the Governing Body, thus providing a renewed mandate for future work. The Workers' group, in particular,
requested that the capacity of the programme be increased to meet the demand from member States for ILO support and
technical assistance for employment-intensive development.
Evaluating the ILO's employment-intensive projects The evaluation reviewing the ILO's policy and programme approaches to employment-intensive projects over the past ten years was finalized in early 1998. It covered EIP policy and programme approaches over the past ten years and endorsed the following changes:
The evaluation also recognized the performance of the programme in terms of the results achieved on the ground, both in relation to employment generation and poverty reduction, and as regards the policy and technical credibility gained with constituents and donor agencies. |
Strengthening the capacity of labour ministries and employers' and workers' organizations
One of the instruments used to institutionalize employment-intensive development in member States is the establishment of employment and investment policy units at the planning ministry level. These units are designed to improve the integration of employment policy into ongoing or planned investments, and to provide decision-makers in government, the private sector and the donor community with analyses and operational options to put employment policy into action more effectively. With ILO assistance, a first such unit has now become operational in Uganda, with effective tripartite representation. Preparatory work has also been terminated for the development of similar units in India (West Bengal), Madagascar and Togo and three exploratory missions were carried out in Guinea, Mali and Senegal in the second quarter of 1999. The proposed units include steering committees with tripartite representation to promote social dialogue on specific employment and labour issues, particularly in the construction industry. Major progress was also made during the biennium in Cambodia, where the Government has taken over the ILO's labour-based appropriate technology project as a key component of its national strategy to combat unemployment and poverty.
Another important step in institutionalizing the adoption of labour-intensive approaches to development in member States is to develop training in the respective technologies. To this effect, the ILO has been collaborating with ten learning institutions and has developed two university networks, one in Africa and one in Asia. One of the countries of the Asian network is Viet Nam, where the ILO is collaborating with two universities: Hanoi University of Water Resources (HUWR) and Hanoi University of Transport and Communication (HUTC). The HUWR has developed courses on appropriate (employment-intensive) technologies for engineering students, conducted awareness programmes on the subject, undertaken research studies and provided training focusing on the use of labour-based technology for infrastructure development. It is estimated that, as from 2002, these institutions will train approximately 20 specialists a year.
Employment-intensive projects
With a view to providing direct support to constituents, the ILO continued to establish and strengthen regional and subregional advisory support, information services and training (ASIST) programmes in order to promote labour-based investment approaches and related analytical and capacity-building activities in Asia, East and West Africa and Latin America. Despite the decreased level of programme development work, technical cooperation projects and policy advice continued to play an important role in directing public investment towards the use of local human and material resources in such infrastructure projects as road building and maintenance, the construction of irrigation canals and environmental improvements. Employment-intensive projects were carried out in over 20 African countries during the biennium, mainly through the ILO-ASIST programme. They often involved the creation and development of labour-based SMEs to carry out the work and the opening up of rural areas for further development.
The ASIST programme was recently evaluated by its donors and was found to be performing well. It was requested to
focus more directly on local-level development in line with the poverty alleviation and decentralization policies emerging
throughout Africa. During the biennium ILO-ASIST was also launched in Asia and the Pacific, where it became active in
over ten countries, as well as in Central America. The ASIST programme in East Africa is fully operational, covering some
14 English-speaking member States.
Employment-intensive investment strategies in Zambia At a National Tripartite Workshop on Labour Policies and Practices in Employment-Intensive Infrastructure Programmes held in November 1999, the Zambian Permanent Secretary of Labour and Social Security described the Government's current employment strategy as giving priority to labour-based public works, alongside the promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises, the development of infrastructure in informal sector industries and a review of labour legislation designed to promote employment and social dialogue. An impact review of the ILO's partnership with the Government in the context of the regional ILO-ASIST programme revealed the following:
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ILO activities related to post-Mitch reconstruction Starting in December 1998, employment-intensive rehabilitation and productive projects and activities were identified for Honduras and Nicaragua; support services were provided at the Central American level. During 1999 a seven-month project for Nicaragua provided advisory services, technical support and training related to employment-intensive rehabilitation of infrastructure damaged by Hurricane Mitch, both for government officials in charge of supervising the works and for small contractors who were trained in technical and management aspects. The government officials were enabled to organize, subcontract and supervise the works, while the small contractors learned how to participate better in government tendering procedures and thus enter the public sector market. They also learned how to improve their general management and technical skills so as to make their businesses more viable and create employment opportunities. Alternative modalities were also analysed to obtain funding for an ILO programme covering Nicaragua, Honduras, and Central America in general, to include the following:
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Activities designed to strengthen the capacity of constituents to promote employment-intensive development included the preparation of training and guidance materials. A guide on labour policies and practices in employment-intensive infrastructure programmes was published in order to give guidance to the social partners on how progress can be made on working conditions and standards in the construction industry.(20) It also shows how government ministries responsible for public works, labour and employment, as well as workers' and employers' organizations, can actively promote good labour policies and practices for temporary workers on civil works schemes. The guide was presented to a regional meeting of the International Federation of Building and Wood Workers (IFBWW) in Harare, and an interregional meeting of the IFBWW in Geneva.
A second guide, aimed at facilitating local contractor development for the private sector execution of public works,(21) was published in April 1999. It describes how large-scale labour-based infrastructure programmes, carried out by contract, should be developed. It provides detailed advice on how to:
- achieve the effective training and participation of small local contractors and consultants;
- establish appropriate and transparent contract systems and procedures;
- define, introduce and enforce relevant labour regulations.
The urban informal sector
As the world continues its transition from a rural to an urban planet, the ILO has placed greater emphasis on developing methods and approaches to create work for the urban poor. These include the development of links between formal sector enterprises and informal sector workers and micro-enterprises, including various forms of subcontracting, as a means of helping the poor participate in the processes of development and globalization. Methods were also tested to help informal sector workers form associations and other representative self-help groups. Guidelines and training modules on these approaches were developed and disseminated, especially in Asian countries.
These methodologies were piloted in a small number of programme initiatives, such as those in India and the United Republic of Tanzania. In India, a new initiative was launched as preparatory work for the design of a national urban informal sector support programme. In the first place, dynamic subsectors of the informal sector were identified which have a high potential for growth, improved working conditions and strengthened linkages with the formal sector. In the early stages of programme development, employers' and workers' groups were involved in identifying these subsectors and in planning a national dialogue workshop on the design of supportive and enabling interventions. The subsectors ranged from the traditional manufacture of handlooms and handicrafts to the provision of tourism services and the subcontracting of information technology services at the upper end of the skills scale found in the modern informal sector.
Women in development and excluded social groups
The social and economic exclusion of large segments of the population is emerging as a major concern, even in countries which are managing to achieve rapid economic growth. These excluded population groups have not been able to participate in modern processes of development. Moreover, new trends of marginalization and exclusion are superimposed on traditional forms of discrimination and vulnerability, based first and foremost on gender but also on ethnicity and employment category.
With a view to developing more efficient mechanisms for the inclusion of these vulnerable groups in the development process, the ILO undertook a programme of work focusing on five thematic areas:
- the quality of women's employment;
- employment and gender equality in the context of structural adjustment and economic reform;
- the employment and social protection of homeworkers;
- capacity building for gender-sensitive poverty eradication and employment promotion strategies;
- capacity building for effective bargaining by indigenous and tribal peoples.
Improving the quality of women's employment
One of the most striking changes in the composition of the labour market worldwide has been the unprecedented rise in women's participation in the labour force. However, this has not led to a marked improvement in women's status. Many women continue to be confined to low-paid, low-skilled and highly unstable occupations. Indications are that old forms of gender discrimination are perpetuated under new and emerging forms of employment. In view of these trends, an action programme was carried out during the biennium to examine the links between gender and employment quality, and to explore the scope for enhancing the employment potential of women in the new global economic order, while improving and preserving the quality of jobs. Particular emphasis was given to four categories of employment which have absorbed the highest concentrations of women:
- employment in the informal sector;
- atypical forms of employment, including part-time work and home work;
- employment in export processing zones and export-oriented industries; and
- migrant labour.
A video entitled Her way to work, which was produced in 1999, provides an overview of women's employment in the new global context, focusing on the four categories of employment referred to above and highlighting some of the strategies that have been adopted to improve the quality of jobs. The video will be shown at the Beijing +5 and Copenhagen +5 conferences to be held in 2000. In addition, a technical report on the quality of women's employment was prepared which examines the gender and employment quality nexus, analyses the economic and institutional factors associated with the increase in women's labour force participation, and weighs the policy issues and options for improving the quality of employment.
Two studies were undertaken on the gender dimensions of employment in the informal sector: a study of networks and associations in the informal sector in three urban centres in Zimbabwe; and a study of employment issues and opportunities in the informal economy of two townships in South Africa. The findings of both studies are expected to provide important elements for the review and formulation of strategies for upgrading employment, strengthening workers' organizations and their bargaining capacity in the urban informal sector, and integrating gender-differentiated issues into informal sector policies and programmes. The studies will be discussed at national meetings scheduled in 2000.
Employment and gender equality in the context of structural adjustment
and economic reform
In the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe national action plans were adopted in 1998 identifying priority areas for legislative reform, employment promotion and social protection in order to redress current gender imbalances in employment, particularly in the context of economic reform. These plans emanated from national workshops and the two national multi-sectoral task forces established in 1997. As a result of their coordinating function in the implementation of the action plans, the task forces have acquired national credibility, developed a spirit of partnership and common perspectives, and built up their coordinating and negotiating skills. The task force in the United Republic of Tanzania was formalized into a national forum on gender, labour and employment issues by the Labour Ministry in January 1998.
In Côte d'Ivoire a national policy workshop on employment, gender and economic reform was held in November 1998. The holding of the workshop, the first of its kind in the country, resulted in the adoption of an action plan. Several institutions expressed appreciation of the conclusions and it is expected that the action plan will be used as a reference for the preparation of the central planning and budgetary document for government ministries.
Capacity building for gender-sensitive poverty eradication
and employment promotion strategies
As a follow-up to both the World Summit for Social Development (1995) and the Fourth World Conference on Women (1995), and in response to the growing demand from constituents to address the gender-specific vulnerability of women to poverty, a capacity-building programme on gender equality, employment promotion and poverty eradication was developed. The central element of the programme is a modular package on gender, poverty and employment, which draws lessons from more than two decades of practical experience with targeted employment promotion policies and programmes for disadvantaged groups, both within and outside the ILO.
The modular package provides guidance for action in nine different policy areas, and advocates a multidisciplinary approach combining policy reform with employment promotion, organization building and social protection. Towards the end of 1999 the programme was launched at three subregional planning seminars in Santiago de Chile, Harare and Beirut. The relevance of the modular package to different regional and national contexts was assessed and follow-up action plans were designed and tailored to national realities and priorities. The modular package, the prototype of which was developed in English, has been translated into Spanish and Arabic.
Employment and social protection of homeworkers
The findings of eight Latin American case studies, prepared in 1997 (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Paraguay and Peru)(22) and a paper providing a comparative analysis on homeworking (23) were discussed in a regional tripartite meeting on home work held in Santiago de Chile in May 1999. The studies shed new light on the extent and characteristics of this form of employment, showing its heterogeneity in terms of sectors, productivity levels and the degree of insecurity/instability of the workers engaged in it. The meeting brought together representatives from national and international research centres, universities and NGOs.
The relevance of homeworking in the current process of economic restructuring and flexibilization was highlighted. The close relationship between female employment and homeworking was confirmed, as well as the concentration of women in the least productive and lowest paid occupations. The cross-regional sharing of experience on policies and programmes targeting homeworkers and own-account home-based workers was particularly valuable. Follow-up activities are planned at both the national and subregional level.
National networks of homeworkers' associations and of national institutions which provide services to homeworkers in the Philippines (PATAMABA), Thailand (HomeNet Thailand) and Indonesia (MWPRI), first established with ILO assistance in the first half of the 1990s, have endured. These networks have increasingly been recognized as the interlocutors and advocates for homeworkers in policy dialogue with governments. They have been able to obtain support services from governments and NGOs and to link up with subregional and international networks. All three networks have been able to organize collective strategies to meet common goals, including savings schemes, health funds, marketing schemes, trade fairs and product diversification.
These collective strategies proved to be valuable during the height of the Asian financial crisis. In 1998, in collaboration with the Thailand and Indonesia national networks and labour ministries, the ILO helped strengthen the management and leadership capacities of homeworkers' associations in various areas of the countries by extending technical and financial support to training activities and group-based productive and social insurance schemes. The ILO also assisted HomeNet Thailand in building its capacity to address the legal and contractual problems of homeworkers through research and the mobilization of expert legal services.
Building the capacity of indigenous and tribal peoples to bargain effectively
One of the chief causes of poverty and exclusion is the limited bargaining power of disadvantaged groups, including indigenous peoples, and their inability to influence decision-making processes which affect them. Several activities were carried out during the biennium to help indigenous peoples engage more effectively in advocacy activities on their own behalf, particularly through the strengthening of organizations representing indigenous peoples.
In Guatemala information and capacity-building activities were undertaken to reinforce the bargaining and planning
capabilities of the indigenous organizations involved in the monitoring and follow-up of the Guatemalan Peace Agreement and
the Indigenous Identity Rights Accord. The dialogue between these organizations and representatives of the Government and
civil society was furthered through public debates and policy workshops. As a result, the National Permanent Commission
on Reform and Participation agreed to establish a forum for the exchange of ideas among the various commissions, including
the Indigenous Commission, which are contributing to the peace process.
Empowering indigenous peoples in the Philippines In the Philippines a project contributed significantly to strengthening indigenous peoples' organizations and federations and the establishment of the National Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines (NCIPP) by sponsoring meetings among the diverse groups at the community, regional and national level. The project also helped the communities to improve their relations with and obtain financial and institutional help from a broad range of agencies, including national non-governmental organizations, governmental authorities and the UNDP Global Environmental Facility Small Grants Programme. With the assistance provided, indigenous groups in the country were successful in lobbying for the adoption of the Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act, which is a prerequisite for the ratification of Convention No. 169. |
The work carried out during the biennium also focused on the links between land tenure security, livelihood strategies and the empowerment of indigenous communities and organizations to participate in decision-making processes concerning the commercial use of the natural resources of their lands. In the Philippines, environmental impact assessment information materials and training sessions for indigenous peoples' leaders were designed on the basis of an earlier review of standard practices of public, semi-public and private corporations. The aim of these materials and training activities was to enable indigenous peoples' leaders to assess and anticipate the adverse effects of development programmes and projects on indigenous communities, to take informed decisions with regard to such projects, and to participate in a meaningful way in decision-making processes concerning the use and allocation of natural resources. Networking and organizational activities of indigenous peoples' organizations were also supported, thereby facilitating the establishment of the National Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines, which had its first general assembly in May.
Notes
1. Employment revival in Europe: Labour market success in Austria, Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands, by P. Auer, 2000. This publication incorporates the following Employment and Training Papers: Austria: Long-term success through social partnership, by Karl Pichelmann and Helmut Hofer, 1999; Denmark: Flexibility, security and labour market success, by Per Kongshoj Madsen, 1999; Astonishing success: Economic growth and the labour market in Ireland, by Philip J. O'Connell, 1999; and The Netherlands: So what's so special about the Dutch model?, by Joop Hartog, 1999.
2. The CEPR thematic reviews included four Employment and Training Papers submitted to the ILO Symposium on Social Dialogue and Employment Success, Geneva 2-3 March 1999: Working time policies, by Gerhard Bosch; Industrial relations and social dialogue, by Jelle Visser; Macroeconomic policy, by Ronald Schettkat; and Equal opportunity and employment policy, by Jill Rubery. The others were: Brasil: Abertura e ajuste do mercado de trabalho no Brasil, Brasilia, 1999; Barbados 1998: Employment policy in a small-island economy, Port-of-Spain, 1999; Country employment policy review: Thailand, Bangkok, 1999; Kenya: Meeting the employment challenge of the 21st century, Addis Ababa, 1999; Ukraine: Country employment policy review, Budapest, 1999; Pakistan: country employment policy review, forthcoming; and Côte d'Ivoire: Country employment policy review, forthcoming.
3. Youth unemployment in Hungary and Poland, by M. Keune, 1998; Education, employment and training policies and programmes for youth with disabilities in four European countries, by C. Russell, 1998; French youth unemployment: An overview, by C. Bruno and S. Cazes; Minimum wages and youth unemployment, by Y. Ghellab, 1998; Unemployment among youth in India: Level, nature and policy implications, by P. Vistaria, 1998; Youth unemployment and youth labour market policies in Germany and Canada, by D.M. Gross, 1998; Youth unemployment and youth employment policies in Italy, by F. Mazzotta and F.E. Caroleo, 1999; Youth and employment, Report for the World Conference of Ministers Responsible for Youth, 8-12 August 1998.
4. Employing youth: Promoting employment-intensive growth, Report for the Interregional Symposium on Strategies to Combat Youth Unemployment and Marginalization, Geneva, 13-14 December 1999.
5. Key Indicators of the Labour Market 1999 (KILM), 1999. The CD-ROM version includes Key Indicators of the Labour Market: Country profiles, 1999 edition.
6. Report, Sixteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians, Geneva, 6-15 October 1998.
7. Sources and methods: Labour statistics, Vol. 9: "Transition countries";, special edition, 1999.
8. Statistics for emerging labour markets in transition economies: A technical guide on sources, methods, classifications and policies, by Igor Chernyshev (Macmillan Press, London, 1997). The 1999 Russian and Ukrainian editions are available from IVT Derzhkomstata Ukrainy Kiev.
9. World Employment Report 1998-99: Employability in the global economy -- How training matters, 1998.
10. Training for employment: Social inclusion, productivity and youth employment, Report V, International Labour Conference, 88th Session, 2000.
11. Productivity promotion organizations: Evolution and experience, Joseph Prokopenko (ed.), 1999; Competitiveness in a rapidly globalizing economy: Lessons of experience, by Ganeshan Wignaraja, 1999; Managing enterprise productivity and competitiveness, by R.C. Monga, 1999; Développement d'une politique nationale de productivité: une approche tripartite, by Hakim Hossenmamode, Turin, 1999.
12. Management development: A guide for the profession, J. Prokopenko (ed.), 1998.
13. Démarche participative et partenariat, African enterprise and export, and Guide pratique sur les mutuelles de santé en Afrique.
14. The COOPREFORM publication Framework for cooperative legislation, by Hagen Henrÿ, 1998, is available in English, French, and (as drafts) Spanish, Portuguese and Russian; the COOPREFORM manual on Participatory cooperative policy-making: A manual, by Denis Dobson (available in English and French), will be published soon in Portuguese.
15. Managing the cooperative difference: A survey of the application of modern management practices in the cooperatives context, by P. Davis, 1999.
16. Cooperative management in a competitive environment, Report on an international workshop, 1997.
17. 2 hours on gender issues in cooperatives -- An introductory session on gender issues for cooperative leaders, 1995. French edition published in 1999.
18. An independent thematic evaluation: ILO's employment-intensive programme, by M. Hopkins, 1998.
19. Employment generation for poverty reduction: The role of employment-intensive approaches in infrastructure investment programmes, Governing Body doc. GB.273/ESP/4/1.
20. Employment-intensive infrastructure programmes: Labour policies and practices, by D. Tajgman and J. de Veen, 1998.
21. Employment-intensive infrastructure programmes: Capacity building for contracting in the construction sector, by P. Bentall, A. Beusch and J. de Veen, 1999.
22. El trabajo a domicilio en Argentina, by E. Jelin, M. Mercado and G. Wyczykier, 1998; Trabalho a domicílio: novas formas de contratação, by L. Lavinas, B. Sorj, L. Linhares and A. Jorge, 1998; El trabajo a domicilio en Chile, un tema antiguo y actual: Resultados de una medición nacional, by H. Henríquez, V. Riquelme, T. Gálvez and T. Selamé, 1988; El trabajo a domicilio en Costa Rica, by R. Martínez Cascante, 1999; El trabajo a domicilio en Guatemala, by C. Rodríguez, 1999; Trabajadores a domicilio en Paraguay, by M.V. Heikel, 1998; Trabajadores a domicilio en el Perú, by F. Verdera V., 1998; Trabajadores a domicilio en el área metropolitana de San Salvador, by H. Salazar, 1999.
23. El trabajo a domicilio en países seleccionados de América Latina: una visión comparativa, by M. Tomei, 1999.
Updated by SD. Approved by RH. Last update: 30 May 2000.