| INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE | Activities of the ILO, 1994-95 | |
| International Labour Conference 83rd Session 1996 |
Report of the Director-General |
3. Equality and social protection
- Equality for women in employment
- Elimination of child labour
- Migrant workers
- Persons with disabilities
- Occupational safety and health
- Environment and the world of work
- Conditions of work
- Social security
- International Social Security Association
The issues of equality and social protection remain central to the work of the Organization. The promotion of equality is a fundamental objective of ILO action on workers' basic rights. Crucial to this work is the situation of women workers, although great emphasis is also placed on equality for other categories of workers, including child workers, migrants for employment and persons with disabilities. The priority given to these issues is demonstrated by the interdepartmental project on migrant workers, the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour and the ILO's work in relation to the Fourth World Conference on Women.
The protection of working people is another related issue that lies at the heart of the ILO's mandate. This chapter also covers the activities carried out to promote the protection of workers in the fields of occupational safety and health, conditions of work and social security, and an interdepartmental project on environment and the world of work, which contributed to thefollow-up of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
Equality for women in employment
The high point of international action in favour of women during the biennium 1994-95 was the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in September 1995. The ILO contributed to the preparatory work for the Conference through its membership of the Ad-Hoc Inter-Agency Advisory Committee on the World Conference and its participation in all the regional preparatory conferences. It provided technical input on employment issues to the reports submitted to these conferences and to the 1994 World survey on the role of women in development. At the Conference
The Declaration and Platform for Action adopted by the
Fourth World Conference on Women
The Declaration and Platform for Action adopted by the Fourth World
Conference on Women (Beijing, September 1995) cover a number of areas that are
central to the concerns of the ILO.
The Declaration reaffirms the commitment of governments to advance the goals
of equality, development and peace. Among its 17 commitments, the following are
of particular relevance to the ILO:
Much of the action called for in the Platform lies within the ILO's fields of
competence, as well as being closely linked to the follow-up of the Social
Summit. These include the development of conceptual and practical methodologies
for the incorporation of gender perspectives in all aspects of economic
policy-making, and the conducting of gender-impact analyses of all policies and
programmes. The development of education, training and retraining policies for
women, and especially for women re-entering the labour market, is an area in
which the ILO has recognized expertise. Other areas in which the ILO has an
important contribution to make include the implementation and enforcement of
laws on women workers' rights and the collection and analysis of data on the
situation of women and respect for their rights. |
For the ILO, all women are working women. This is reflected in the range of activities organized by the ILO prior to the Conference as preparation for its constituents. An international forum on Equality for Women in the World of Work was held in June 1994 and regional and subregional seminars were organized on equality issues in Africa, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, the Caribbean, Latin America and Europe. The purpose of these meetings was to raise awareness of the situation of women in the various regions, identify strategies for the promotion of gender equality and contribute to regional preparatory work for the Beijing Conference. The participants in these seminars identified a number of important areas within the ILO's fields of competence in which progress needed to be made in order to promote equality between men and women workers. These included the establishment and application of a supportive legal framework, not only on labour matters, but also in the areas of inheritance, property ownership and the family which have an impact on women's employment, with a view to removing legal impediments to equality. Those attending the seminars called for increased access of women to productive resources, such as land, credit, technology and support services for small enterprises, and pointed to the need for the generation of up-to-date gender-disaggregated data and gender-sensitive economic and training policies and programmes. The seminars emphasized the importance of women's group mobilization, adequate representation in decision-making and the effective functioning of tripartite machinery. They also drew attention to the importance of social support services, including child care, and the need to adapt social security and other forms of social protection to provide adequate coverage of the diverse categories of women workers.
The principle of equality of opportunity and treatment for women is integral to all the ILO's work. References to women's issues are therefore to be found throughout this report. The paragraphs that follow here-below resume some of the activities that focus specifically on the question of equality for women in employment. These activities include the dissemination of information on the situation of women, research into aspects of inequality, policy advisory services to the ILO's constituents and projects and programmes at the national level.
Limited dissemination of information on gender issues is still a constraint on effective action in this field. Emphasis was therefore placed on the production of public information materials and other publications for wide dissemination. A press kit was developed, including a flyer and posters. A volume was published covering the results of the preparatory meetings organized by the ILO for the Beijing Conference.(1) An annotated bibliography was also produced on publications relating to women workers.(2) Another book was prepared for academics, policy-makers, the social partners and women's groups describing the policies and measures that can be taken to implement a comprehensive integrated approach to the achievement of equality for women. The work covers the legal framework, working conditions, social protection and the respective roles of all the main actors in the world of work.(3) Furthermore, a study was carried out to evaluate the extent of continuing wage differentials between men and women workers.(4)
Two projects were launched during the biennium to provide training on gender issues in the world of work and disseminate information on women workers' rights. Training in gender issues was provided for ILO staff and trainers from NGOs, government agencies and workers' and employers' organizations at a course held in Turin in December 1994. A briefing kit and a gender training package were prepared as a basis for further training activities.(5) Workshops on gender issues for ILO staff and constituents were organized in Budapest, Lima, Manila, Mexico City, New Delhi, Port-of-Spain, San José and Santiago. A workshop for constituents from southern African countries was also held in Malawi on gender issues and international labour standards related to women workers' questions. The second project was launched in China, Egypt, El Salvador, Hungary, India, Mali, Suriname, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe, where national steering committees were set up. A first step in these countries was to start adapting the modular training package on women workers' rights produced during the previous biennium, as a basis for national training and information dissemination activities.
Occupational segregation is one of the most important forms of inequality in the labour market. Throughout the world, women and men are segregated in sex-stereotyped occupations, with pay being considerably higher in male occupations. A comprehensive analysis of occupational segregation in the world was carried out, based on detailed data collected on 41 countries. This was the first time a comprehensive analysis of this type had been made for a broad range of industrialized and developing countries. The analysis reached a number of general conclusions. It noted that the types of occupations that are stereotyped for males or females are strikingly similar across the world. Indeed, most men and most women in the world work in a sex-stereotyped occupation, although a much wider range of sex-stereotyped occupations are available to men than to women. The analysis showed that occupational segregation is lowest in the Asian region and highest in the Middle East and the Northern African region. It also revealed that regional and subregional differences in occupational segregation are striking and cannot be explained by differences in socio-economic conditions, such as levels of education and income. On a more optimistic note, the analysis also reached the conclusion that occupational segregation has been falling in recent years in much of the world.(6)
The situation of women workers varies according to the characteristics of specific sectors of the economy. The introduction of higher levels of technology in manufacturing has helped women enter jobs and industries previously largely reserved for men, with the result that the number and proportion of women employed in manufacturing has increased over the past two decades. However, a statistical analysis of manufacturing workers showed that, while there is little difference between the average hours worked by men and women, the gap between their earnings is considerable in many countries. This confirms that women tend to be employed mainly in low-skilled and low-paid jobs in the manufacturing sector.(7) A number of studies on remuneration and career prospects in the nursing profession highlighted the same issues in the field of health care.(8) A review was also undertaken of the progress that has been made in Europe in recent years as regards equality of opportunity and treatment for women in professional and managerial occupations.(9)
As a follow-up to the Beijing Conference, and as a support for the provision of advisory services on equality of opportunities and treatment for women workers, a manual was prepared on labour market policy measures to enhance women's employment prospects.(10) This manual is designed to assist policy-makers to translate into practice those sections of the Platform of Action adopted in Beijing which relate to the productive employment of women. It covers the principal policy issues and concerns, and describes the role that labour market policies can play in improving the position of women workers. It suggests policy orientations to enhance women's skills and improve their access to the labour market. It also contains recommendations for the development and reinforcement of social security coverage and social protection for women workers.
The promotion of women's employment in poor communities is one of the most effective means of poverty alleviation. Policy advisory missions were undertaken in Jamaica, Ghana, Kenya and Uganda to suggest measures that might be taken to promote income-earning opportunities for women and to outline policies addressing the issues and constraints faced by women in their work. National tripartite workshops were also organized in Sri Lanka and Kenya on the best ways of assisting women's employment in the rural and informal sectors.(11) Following a seminar on rural women workers held at the request of the All-Pakistan Federation of Trade Unions, guidelines were prepared on action that can be taken to assist rural women.(12)
Many of the employment promotion projects and programmes under-taken and supported by the ILO contain specific aspects for the promotion of employment by women, as described in Chapter 2. During the biennium, certain projects focused entirely on the needs of women workers. One common aspect of these projects was the promotion of groups or associations of women workers through which collective solutions could be identified and applied. These organizations provide a channel for capacity-building, the development of productive and managerial skills and the provision of collective services, such as cooperative credit and savings schemes. An example of this approach was a project for women fuel carriers in Addis Ababa, under which four centres were set up, initially catering for 120 women. The centres helped the women identify other income-generating activities, such as the production of handicrafts and food products. They also helped them formulate a plan for better managed access to fuel sources, which was submitted to the Government. The centres also established a pilot credit scheme and provided training. It is envisaged that they will form the basis for the establishment of an association of the women workers concerned. Another project in the United Republic of Tanzania applied a similar approach to the problems of rural women by helping them seek alternative sources of income and promoting their organization into groups and associations. Two projects were implemented in India to assist women's organizations turn wasteland into productive resources. Other projects in India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand concentrated on promoting diversified employment opportunities and social protection for homeworkers, the vast majority of whom are women (for more details on the projects for homeworkers, see the box in Chapter 4).
A number of specific activities for the benefit of women workers, managers and entrepreneurs were carried out in collaboration with employers' organizations. Research was undertaken in India, Ireland, Malaysia and Pakistan on the measures and policies that have been adopted by employers' organizations to promote gender equality. A set of guidelines was prepared by employers for the use of employers and their organizations on equity issues. The guidelines suggest measures that employers can take to comply with legal requirements relating to equality of opportunity and treatment. They also point to the advantages of pursuing equal opportunities policies, not only to society as a whole, but also in terms of business performance and the contribution that equality can make to efficient management practices. A project was launched in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and the Philippines to assist employers' organizations identify the problems faced by women entrepreneurs in Asia and provide them with training, based largely on the "Improve your Business" methodology, to help overcome these problems.
In its workers' education activities, the ILO promoted the participation of women by insisting that at least 30 per cent of all workers' representatives attending its courses should be women. This figure rose to 50 per cent in workers' education courses organized at the Turin Centre. Workers' education activities to train women trade unionists and develop their leadership potential were carried out in a wide range of countries, including Fiji, Indonesia, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Uganda and Zimbabwe, as well as in Chile and the countries of Central America. Care was also taken to include women's issues and equality in all workers' education activities. See the box in Chapter 1 (page 31) for more details on the promotion of equality through rural workers' organizations.
Elimination of child labour
The ILO's International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) began operations in 1992 in six participating countries: Brazil, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Thailand and Turkey. In 1994, an additional five countries, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines and the United Republic of Tanzania, joined the programme. In the second half of 1995, a regional project was launched to expand IPEC activities to 13countries in Central and South America.Child workers all over the world are exploited because of their docility and lack of organization. First of all it should be stressed, however, that light work up to a few hours per day for children of 14 or 15 years of age, within the context of the household and as part of informal education and training, is part of the normal process of growing up; this is thus not considered harmful. The child labour which needs to be eradicated is the work carried out by children of 15 years and younger under conditions which stifle their physical, emotional and intellectual development. IPEC's most pressing objective is therefore to support measures which aim to stop and prevent the intolerable. Priority targets are children who are particularly vulnerable: children working under forced labour conditions and in bondage; children working in hazardous occupations; and working children below 12 years of age. Within these categories, specific attention is paid to working girls.
The approach adopted by IPEC varies according to the nature of the child-labour problem and the manner in which it is viewed in each country. However, a number of steps are followed in most cases. The first is to motivate ILO constituents and other relevant partners to engage in a dialogue on problems in this area and create alliances to overcome them. A situational analysis is then undertaken to find out the nature and magnitude of child-labour problems in the country. This provides a basis for devising national policies to address specific problems. Work then focuses on strengthening existing organizations and setting up institutional mechanisms, which normally consist of a national steering committee for the project composed of the relevant ministries, workers' and employers' organizations and NGOs. This lays the foundation for action in such fields as the development and application of protective legislation, and direct action on child labour.
Fully-fledged country programmes now exist in the first-generation countries which joined IPEC in 1992. The development of such programmes is under way in five second-generation countries, which started to participate in 1994. The aim of the national programmes is to provide assistance until the commitment, policies, budget and infrastructure exist so that the country can tackle its child-labour problem itself. The timetable varies according to the country, but the IPEC approach includes a phase-in
Combating child labour in Thailand
Thai participation in the International Programme for the
Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) coincided with heightened official awareness
of the problem of child labour in Thailand. In 1992, the Government declared
its determination to eradicate child labour, emphasized the importance of
education for the national economy and identified child labour and children in
prostitution as the two most critical issues in this respect. However, this did
not prevent Thailand from being criticized by the Committee on the Application
of Standards at the 81st Session of the International Labour Conference in 1994
for not making a serious effort to combat child labour and child
prostitution.
At about this time, awareness of the problem of child labour started to be
translated into action. Since May 1994, IPEC's National Steering Committee, set
up to coordinate the activities of the various agencies involved in the
programme, has been chaired by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of
Labour and Social Welfare and has met frequently. The potential of IPEC has
been recognized and the Government established two programmes: one to prevent
child-labour migration from rural areas and another to provide protection to
child workers at the workplace. A technical workshop in April 1995, organized
by the Ministry of Labour and the Prime Minister's Office in collaboration with
IPEC, led to the drafting of a five-year National Plan of Action (NPA) on Child
Labour, which will be submitted to the Cabinet for approval. The objectives of
the NPA are ambitious and include increasing the minimum age for employment to
15 years and eliminating extreme forms of child labour, including physical and
sexual abuse and trafficking. Although there is a long way to go, there are
already some encouraging signs. The emphasis placed on education resulted in an
increase in the enrolment rate in secondary education from 53 per cent in 1990
to 71 per cent in 1993.
IPEC has supported this process in a number of ways. Some of its pilot
projects are being replicated by the Government. These include the informal
education and counselling programme for girls at risk, awareness-raising among
rural teachers and schoolchildren, and the training of radio programmers and
announcers to broadcast on child-labour issues. IPEC has also provided support
in areas where national action is weak, including that of child-labour
statistics, non-formal education, social and legal protection, the training of
labour inspectors and national coordination. |
As part of their national child-labour policy, governments need to ensure that publicly funded basic education is available to all children. Special measures are often needed to ensure that education reaches child workers. In Indonesia, for example, support has been given to the Ministry of Education, which has developed an out-of-school education programme for 10 million school drop-outs, designed primarily for working girls and boys under the age of 15. Learning materials were developed to take into account the requirements of children who work as car cleaners, shoe-shiners, waste collectors, street traders, farm labourers, housekeepers or factory labourers.
Trade unions are particularly well placed to protect working children. Among its activities in collaboration with workers' organizations, IPEC supported the Brazilian National Confederation of Workers in Agriculture in its training of union leaders to act as advocates of the rights of children. As a result, child and youth protection clauses have been included in over 20 collective agreements. The Confederation is also participating in the Municipal Councils for Children's and Adolescents' Rights (which have been set up in almost 6,000 municipalities) and has launched its own media campaign stressing the dangers to which working children are exposed.
Employers' organizations can play a key role in helping businesses and industries reduce their reliance on children. The assistance provided by IPEC to employers' organizations included support for the efforts of the Federation of Kenya Employers (FKE), which has set up a Child Labour Unit. This Unit is taking measures to reduce employers' reliance on child labour and protect working children in sugar, coffee and rice plantations.
Migrant workers
Migration for employment is prevalent in practically all parts of the world. Growth in the volume of migration for employment has far outstripped the capacity of many States to manage the movement of incoming and returning migrant workers. The inadequacy and in comparability of many of the sources of statistics on migrant workers mean that severe constraints are imposed on any systematic analysis of the social, demographic or economic impact of migration in both labour-sending and -receiving countries. The result is that constituents often find it impossible to target policy interventions with any accuracy. In many cases, the relevant institutions, such as emigration bureaux, recruitment agencies and the appropriate overseeing authorities, as well as social security schemes, are not adapted to the needs of the workers, who often suffer from discrimination once they arrive in the receiving country.
Kuwait improves the protection of migrant workers
Kuwait, although a small country, employs a significant number of
migrant workers in many sectors, including over a quarter of a million foreign
workers in domestic service. Migrants for employment to Kuwait have experienced
a number of problems in respect of their work, including non-payment of their
wages by recruitment agencies, difficulties in transferring employment once
they have found work in Kuwait and, in the case of domestic workers, a lack of
protection at the workplace.
A multidisciplinary mission visited Kuwait in November 1994 to consider a
number of issues, including the situation of migrants for employment. The
Government of Kuwait rapidly adopted some of the recommendations made by the
multidisciplinary mission, and indicated that it is giving serious
consideration to other proposals.
To prevent abuses concerning the payment of wages, the Ministry of Labour
issued a Decree requiring the payment of migrant workers through bank accounts,
which provides a better guarantee for wage-earners. It also issued a Decree
requiring private entrepreneurs who employ migrant workers to lodge a bank
guarantee for each worker who is hired, thereby further guaranteeing the
payment of their wages. The Government also indicated that some other proposals
made by the mission concerning residence requirements would be included in the
new draft labour law.
In a press release, the Minister of Social Affairs and Labour stated that a
serious study was also being undertaken of the possibility of extending the
labour law to cover domestic workers, which would provide them with greater
protection in a number of ways, including the guarantee of being covered by
contracts of employment and work permits. |
The basic objectives of the ILO in this respect, in accordance with the application of the relevant labour standards, are the more widespread acceptance and implementation of the principle of equality of treatment for migrant workers and the elimination of discrimination against them. During the biennium, the ILO's activities relating to migrant workers were supplemented by an interdepartmental project. The aim of this project was to provide guidance and advisory services to constituents to reinforce their capacity to adopt the appropriate policies and measures. It approached this task through an intensive analysis of the needs of constituents, particularly in the fields of data collection, institutional structures, national and international legislation and social security provisions concerning migrant workers.
The activities of the interdepartmental project concentrated on 22countries, selected to reflect the main current migratory movements.(13) Technical advisory and information collection missions were carried out in most of these countries. Subregional seminars were also organized in Tajikistan, Japan and Poland. The recommendations made in all these cases focused on: improving the effectiveness of existing institutions; strengthening cooperation between labour-sending and -receiving countries, especially through bilateral and multilateral agreements; improving the protection of migrant workers; and combating uncontrolled and clandestine migration for employment, particularly by reducing the cost and improving the efficiency and accessibility of official channels for migration. A training workshop was organized in Turin in November 1994 for labour attachés from eight Asian countries. The workshop consisted of training sessions on international standards and the role of the State in protecting migrant workers, including with respect to social security. Training was also provided on counselling, communication and negotiation skills with a view to strengthening the capacity of the participants to negotiate with employers and government officials in labour-receiving countries in order to resolve conflicts relating to employment contracts and otherwise protect their nationals. Another seminar on immigration, employment and social integration was held in Spain in July 1995.
Guidance was also developed in the form of manuals and guidelines. Two manuals were prepared on migration policies and procedures, one concentrating on immigration and the other on emigration.(14) On the basis of a review of existing sources of data and experience of data collection in the 22 countries covered by the interdepartmental project, guidelines were prepared for the improvement of data collection systems on international migration.(15) It was found that there were many gaps and shortcomings at the national level, as well as severe problems in comparing national data. As a result, recommendations were made on how methods of data collection could be improved, for example by making greater use of administrative records, population censuses and sample surveys, and on methodological approaches which could enhance the international comparability of statistics covering such subjects as migration flows, return migration and remittances.
The work carried out to promote the rights of migrant workers included surveys of legislative provisions relevant to migrants in the 22 countries covered by the interdepartmental project. For ease of access, the legislative references were compiled in two separate volumes and were made available in computerized form for use by ILO constituents.(16) Volume I includes references classified by country and Volume II contains references classified by subject-matter. A comparative analysis was made of national and international legislation to: identify disparities between national laws and international labour standards; evaluate the extent of the protection provided under these laws; and determine shortcomings in the protection of migrant workers under the existing legislation. In this analysis, emphasis was placed on national practice and the constraints in enforcing statutory provisions to combat discrimination, particularly as they relate to women migrant workers, who are especially vulnerable.(17)
In the field of social security, an analysis was made of bilateral and multilateral social security agreements with a view to improving their content and -- where agreements were lacking -- adopting appropriate measures to protect migrant workers at the national level. Country profiles of most of the 22 countries covered by the project identified the social protection problems of migrant workers. On the basis of this analysis, a report was prepared which emphasized the considerable differences in the situation of migrant workers -- depending on whether they came from or went to a country with a well-organized or poorly developed social security system.(18) Bilateral social security agreements can overcome some of the problems, particularly as regards equality of treatment and the payment of contributory pension benefits abroad; however, the existing network of agreements still shows a number of important loopholes, particularly in developing countries.
An examination was also carried out of the role of trade unions in pro-tecting the rights of migrant workers. A questionnaire was sent to workers' organizations in the 22 countries covered by the interdepartmental project, as well as to international and regional trade union organizations. Based on the replies received, a report was prepared on existing union structures and their access to legislative and other information concerningmigrant workers, with a view to identifying ways and means of strengthening the capacity of trade unions to protect the rights of migrant workers and enhance their welfare.(19) A seminar was also held for trade unionists in Malaysia which focused on the problems encountered by migrant workers from Indonesia and the Philippines. Technical cooperation activities were undertaken in two African countries. These consisted of the development of training materials and the provision of training to trade union leaders and trainers on issues such as the seasonal nature of the work of many migrant workers, the question of whether their membership of trade unions was per-mitted in receiving countries and the type of protection accorded to them.
During the biennium a number of activities were carried out with a view to drawing broader attention to the problems encountered by migrant workers in receiving countries. Surveys of Germany, the Netherlands and Spain revealed that, even where workers were entitled under national law to equal opportunities in employment, there was still widespread discrimination by private employers against foreign workers and members of ethnic groups.(20) A report was also published which achieved a high level of success in reaching its triple target of academics, policy-makers and the public.(21) This report provides an authoritative overview of the question of migration for employment, places it in its historical context and then focuses on current problems. These issues were also covered in a joint publication by the ILO, IOM and UNHCR, issued as a contribution to the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in 1994.(22)
Persons with disabilities
The principal objectives of ILO action in favour of persons with disabilities continued to be the equalization of employment opportunities for workers with disabilities and their integration into the community. Particular attention was paid to the special problems of disabled workers during times of economic restructuring, when their needs are often overlooked. During the biennium, special emphasis was placed on action to assist the reintegration of persons with disabilities in countries emerging from armed conflict and in transition countries, and on ways to combat the problem of drug and alcohol abuse.In order to guide the process of policy reform on issues affecting disabled workers, the Office needed to build up its knowledge base and capacity to review and assess policies and systems. In February 1995, aglobal network was therefore launched for applied disability research in the field of employment and training (GLADNET). This network now links over 130 institutions in 30 countries (social policy research centres, universities and various governmental and non-governmental organizations) with the Canadian Labour Force Development Board in Ottawa hosting the Network Coordinator. Its aim is to share resources, experiences and information with a view to carrying out comparative research and evaluating existing rehabilitation and employment policies and systems for disabled persons. This will provide a basis for the provision of practical information on successful solutions to help governments, employers and trade unions achieve greater employment equity at less cost.
Systems for the reintegration of persons with disabilities are being thoroughly overhauled -- alongside many other social measures -- in countries undergoing transition to a market economy. To provide guidance in this respect, an analysis was undertaken of employment prospects including alternative, low-cost approaches to enhancing equal opportunities for persons with disabilities in countries in transition. The findings of this analysis were published in English, Russian, Chinese, Polish, Czech and Bulgarian.(23) The study has been widely disseminated, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, where most governments are reviewing their legislation on the employment of disabled persons.
The biennium was characterized by requests for advice and assistance in the rehabilitation of persons with disabilities in countries emerging from armed conflict. As a result, much of the support provided to constituents was concentrated in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and Nicaragua. This support consisted mainly of the promotion of skills for self-employment and micro-enterprises for disabled war veterans, often supported by revolving loan funds. In Cambodia and the Islamic Republic of Iran, the integration of war victims into mainstream training programmes became accepted government policy. In Afghanistan, 2,300 disabled people received training in 75different occupations.
In September 1995, a regional seminar was held in Abidjan in cooperation with UNESCO and WHO, to promote a mainstream approach to servicing the needs of persons with disabilities. The seminar reviewed the division of government responsibilities and stressed the importance of interministerial and inter-agency cooperation, in particular in the framework of community-based approaches. Each delegation formulated a national plan of action which laid the groundwork for coordination between ministries of health, social affairs and labour.
In accordance with the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention, 1983 (No. 159), national policies in favour of persons with disabilities should be developed in consultation with employers' and workers' organizations, as well as with organizations of and for disabled persons. In order to promote this principle, two tripartite-plus regional seminars were organized, one in Port-of-Spain and the other in Harare. Some 50 people from ten countries attended each meeting. In both cases it was the first time that disability issues had been discussed jointly by the four parties and that a consensus had been reached on the action required to enhance the labour market participation of disabled persons. Both events are being followed up in the respective regions through advisory services. For example, South Africa has requested ILO assistance to review its policy for the employment of disabled persons.
The increasingly detrimental repercussions of drugs and alcohol in the workplace is a growing problem which more and more governments, employers and workers recognize as a common dilemma requiring joint action. The adoption and dissemination of the ILO Code of Practice on the management of alcohol and drug-related issues in the workplace during the biennium 1994-95 was therefore particularly timely. It contributed directly to the United Nations System-wide Plan of Action on Drug Abuse Prevention in the Workplace, for which the ILO acted as Task Force Manager at the request of the ACC Subcommittee on Drug Control.
Activities in this field included the development of model programmes designed to integrate substance abuse prevention into the mainstream activities of enterprises. The first model programmes for drug and alcohol prevention among workers and their families were launched in Egypt, Mexico, Namibia, Poland and Sri Lanka. Some 45 enterprises from these countries, representing a workforce of 250,000 workers, joined the project and adapted the model programme to their company. In each country a resource base was set up which compiled descriptions of the model programmes and materials -- such as manuals on the role of managers, early intervention, family/community linkages and training. Similar programmes are being started in 13 other countries.
A prevention programme for sailors, including training and awareness campaigns, was developed in collaboration with the Philippines Overseas Employment Agency, which, as a result, has adopted a specific policy for the prevention of drug and alcohol abuse in the maritime industry. The ILO is also developing a manual to help shipping companies set up their own prevention programmes.
Occupational safety and health
Over the years, the activities of the ILO -- in collaboration with other specialist organizations -- have succeeded in raising awareness of occupational safety and health problems throughout the world, leading to the adoption of many measures at the national level. However, much remains to be done to protect the workforce and the public from work-related hazards and to assist constituents in the design and implementation of appropriate preventive measures, particularly in a context of rapid technological progress, with its attendant hazards. The policy adopted to meet these needs consists of action at the international level on occupational safety and health, the development of standards and guides for the orientation of constituents and the provision of assistance at the national level in the design and implementation of appropriate safety and health programmes and policies. Emphasis is also placed on the dissemination of occupational safety and health information.The body of international labour standards on occupational safety and health was supplemented during the biennium by the Safety and Health in Mines Convention (No. 176) and its accompanying Recommendation (No.183) (see box), both of which were adopted by the Conference at its 82nd Session in 1995. Guidance for the establishment of legal, administrative and practical arrangements for the reporting of occupational accidents and diseases was also provided through the adoption of a Code of Practice on the recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases.
International labour standards on occupational safety and health form the basis for the ILO's work of assisting member States in the development and implementation of national policies for the prevention of work-related injuries and diseases. Assistance for the development of national policies was provided in Botswana, China, Lesotho, Myanmar, Pakistan and Swaziland, as well as through subregional programmes in French-speaking African countries and in Central America. These activities were complemented by the organization of a number of regional and national seminars and the implementation of two interregional programmes on human resources development and capacity-building in safety and health for government institutions and employers' and workers' organizations.
Practical guides and training materials were prepared to support the provision of assistance to constituents. A practical guide was developed for
Safety and Health in Mines Convention
Mining is a dangerous sector which is of major economic importance
in a considerable number of countries. Yet, before 1995, the existing ILO
standards on occupational safety and health, as well as the legislation in a
good number of countries, were inadequate to deal with the specific needs of
the sector for the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases. These
were the reasons for the adoption by the International Labour Conference at its
82nd Session in 1995 of the Safety and Health in Mines Convention (No. 176) and
Recommendation (No. 183).
The instruments cover both underground and surface sites where exploration and
mineral extraction activities take place. They apply to all types of mining
enterprises. Member States which ratify the Convention undertake to adopt
legislation for its implementation, including the provision of inspection
services and the designation of the competent authority to monitor and regulate
the various aspects of safety and health in mines. The Convention also sets out
procedures for reporting and investigating disasters, accidents and dangerous
occurrences related to mines, and for the compilation of the relevant
statistics.
The Convention includes requirements for the provision of mine rescue, first
aid and other medical facilities. It makes it obligatory to provide self-rescue
respiratory devices for workers in underground coalmines. The manufacture,
storage, transport and use of explosives and initiating devices at mines also
have to be carried out under the direct supervision of competent and authorized
persons. Furthermore, national legislation has to make provision for the safe
storage and disposal of waste and for protective measures for abandoned
workings.
Under the Convention, mineworkers have the right to report accidents, request
inspections, obtain information and remove themselves from any location at a
mine where there appears to be a serious danger to their safety or health.
Workers' representatives have the right to consult the employer on their
safety, and participate in inspections and investigations undertaken at the
workplace. A series of Articles require employers to take all the necessary
measures to eliminate, control or minimize the risks to the safety and health
of workers in mines.
The adoption of the Convention and Recommendation has been widely welcomed,
particularly by workers' organizations. Through its national affiliates, the
Miners' International Federation is campaigning for the ratification of the
Convention as it goes through the process of submission to national parliaments. |
Two guides were also developed on the extension of occupational health services to working populations in the agricultural sector and small-scale enterprises. They address the issues of health risk assessment, workplace participation, the development of practical training materials on basic preventive measures and first aid. The guides are based on the provisions of the Occupational Health Services Convention, 1985 (No. 161) for the use of inter-enterprise and community-based health services in both rural and urban areas. A subregional programme, implemented in close collaboration with the Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO/WHO), continued to promote occupational safety and health in agriculture in Central America, including the implementation of national safety and health policies and programmes and environmental protection.
The ILO continued to play an active role in the coordination of action in the field of safety and health among international organizations. This involved participation in the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health, the twelfth session of which was held in April 1995, as well as collaboration with other international bodies. The ILO has played a leading role in the preparations for the XIVth World Congress on Occupational Safety and Health, which will be held in Madrid in 1996.
Emphasis continued to be placed on the prevention and detection of occupational lung diseases, which are one of the largest categories of work-related diseases throughout the world. Training workshops on the prevention of lung diseases, based on the ILO classification of radiographs of pneumoconioses, were also organized in Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, Venezuela and Viet Nam. The workshops brought together a total of 350 physicians who are now trained in the use of this classification. A set of reference radiographs was prepared for use in these training workshops.
In response to the recognized need for more stringent standards for protection against radiation, the ILO, together with FAO, IAEA, WHO/PAHO and the OECD's Nuclear Energy Agency, adopted a revised version of the International Basic Safety Standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources (BSS). Practical guidance on the basic principles of radiation protection and safety was also prepared in a companion document to the BSS.(25) The standards set out in these publications are used by governments in the formulation of national legislation on radiation protection.
In the field of ergonomics, a manual was prepared in collaboration with the International Ergonomics Association containing 128 ergonomic checkpoints, which illustrate practical, easy-to-use ergonomic solutions to improve safety, health and working conditions and efficiency. The manual is particularly suited to the needs of small and medium-sized enterprises.(26) Work also commenced on the development of guidelines and training packages on practical ways to prevent injuries and disorders such as low-back pain, neck and upper limb disorders, and stress-related illnesses.
Access to information is one of the key aspects of preventing work-related hazards. Indeed, there is growing awareness that regulatory-driven policies for the prevention of accidents and diseases need to be supplemented, or even replaced, by information-driven strategies. The ILO's activities in this field continued to focus on supporting the formulation and implementation of national safety and health information strategies. In these activities, emphasis was placed on the development of networks of national institutions and the promotion of the free flow of information between national services and among the social partners. Central to these activities is the International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS), which is a focal point of 88 national and 23 collaborating centres (in comparison with 75 and ten respectively at the end of the previous biennium).
With the support of these centres, safety and health information was presented and disseminated in a variety of forms. Twelve issues of the bulletin Safety and health at work were produced in English, French and Spanish. The bulletin contains information on a broad range of safety and health topics, training workshops and conferences, laws, regulations and directives, chemical safety data sheets, training materials and audiovisual aids, as well as selections of the latest books, journal articles, statistics, standards and codes of practice. The topics covered included construction and mining safety, major industrial hazards, ergonomics, chemical safety, safeguarding of machinery, asbestos, industrial hygiene and occupational and work-related diseases. This information was also made available on two compact discs (CD-ROMs), some 6,000 copies of which were produced and disseminated. Information was also disseminated through several on-line centres throughout the world. During the biennium, 500 pages of World Wide Web safety and health information were prepared and made available to Internet users. Some 4,400 new microfiches were added to the CIS's collection, which provides the libraries of the CIS national centres with the full text of materials contained in the CIS database.
Ever since the publication of its first edition in the 1930s, the ILO's Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety has been one of the world's major authorities on safety and health information. The Encyclopaedia focuses on hazard recognition, prevention and control, and deals with virtually all major workplace hazards in all sectors of the economy, as well as many social and policy issues. Most of the preparations were completed for the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia, which is set to be published during the course of the biennium 1996-97. Work on the Encyclopaedia involved collaboration with virtually every major occupational safety and health institution, whether public, private or non-governmental, throughout the world. Contributions were received from nearly 1,000 international experts in over 60 countries.
A reliable supply of basic information in an easily accessible format remains essential to workers' safety and health. Data sheets meet this requirement and continued to be produced and disseminated during the biennium. The series now comprises 367 titles in English, most of which also exist in French, with many also translated into other languages. International chemical safety cards continued to be reviewed and disseminated in the framework of the UNEP/ILO/WHO International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and a set of training modules on chemical safety was developed for use in Africa.
Assistance in the development and strengthening of national occupational safety and health information systems and institutions was provided in the form of technical cooperation activities in Central and Eastern European countries, the Andean countries and 40 countries in Africa and Asia. An external evaluation of the activities undertaken in Africa and Asia found that they had made a major contribution to the improvement of working conditions and environment in the target countries. As a result of this work, local production and use of safety and health materials, news-letters, technical, ergonomic and chemical data sheets are mushrooming.
Environment and the world of work
An interdepartmental project on environment and the world of work was established during the biennium to help fulfil the ILO's commitment to assist its tripartite constituents in the implementation of Agenda 21, the action programme adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).(27) The project had three aims: the ratification and implementation of ILO standards on the working environment; the promotion of the environmentally sound management of chemicals; and action to address the employment, training and poverty implications of environmentally sound and sustainable development.The UNCED Conference asked governments to consider the ratification and implementation of existing environmental instruments, including the ILO's standards on the working environment. With a view to assisting the ILO's constituents identify practical measures to implement working environment Conventions and find new ways and approaches for their ratification, advisory missions visited Argentina, China, Estonia, Ghana, Guyana, Sri Lanka, the Syrian Arab Republic, Trinidad and Tobago and Tunisia. Special priority was given to the Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170), the Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents Convention, 1993 (No. 174), and the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155). National tripartite workshops to review these Conventions were held in each country -- an exercise which led to some immediate and useful results at the national level. For example, in Estonia, Ghana and Sri Lanka, workshops recommended the ratification of Conventions Nos. 170 and 174. In the Syrian Arab Republic, Trinidad and Tobago and Tunisia, tripartite and multi-ministry coordinating committees were created or proposed to facilitate follow-up action. In each country, priority actions related to the implementation of the Conventions were identified with explicit deadlines and detailed work programmes to implement them.
During the 1990s, concerns about safety in the use of chemicals at work have, as mentioned above, resulted in the adoption of Conventions Nos. 170 and 174. In addition, Chapter 19 of Agenda 21 identified the promotion of the environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals on a worldwide basis as one of the key factors in achieving sustainable development. In response to these recommendations, the ILO has continued to participate in the joint UNEP/ILO/WHO International Programme on Chemical Safety (ICPS) and has played a key role in the establishment of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) and the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS). It has also been assigned lead responsibility for coordination of the global harmonization by the year 2000 of existing systems for the classification and labelling of chemicals, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable symbols.
The immediate objective was to help countries identify and prioritize their needs in terms of human resources and institutional capacity-building to achieve these goals. This was accomplished in three pilot countries through the elaboration of national chemical safety profiles, which were finalized and endorsed by tripartite workshops in the Czech Republic, Brazil and Malaysia.(28) During the tripartite workshop in the Czech Republic, particular attention was paid to the need to develop relevant education and training programmes for specialists, workers and the general public, including training manuals, publications and the establishment of appropriate chemical databases, as well as their translation into the Czech language. In the case of Malaysia, the priority need identified was the formulation of a comprehensive national chemical safety policy and a harmonized format for the classification and labelling of chemicals in transportation and at workplaces. The tripartite workshop in Brazil requested the Ministry of Labour to establish a national tripartite commission to elaborate and implement a national programme on chemical safety, focusing on the classification and labelling of chemicals. The commission's responsibilities would include reviewing the implementation of Convention No. 170, ratified by Brazil in May 1995. An analysis was made of these three pilot cases, as well as of other information available on capacity-building requirements related to the introduction of harmonized systems for the classification and labelling of chemicals.(29)
To assist in addressing the relevant employment, training and poverty alleviation implications of environment and world of work issues, a series of pilot initiatives were carried out in Chile, the Philippines and Zimbabwe. The objective was to ensure that national Agenda 21 and sustainable development strategies, plans and programmes in these target countries also included critical world of work issues, such as working conditions, employment, training and poverty alleviation. Priority was given to promoting a demand-driven process led by constituents, including non-governmental organizations, community-based groups, other relevant ministries and government institutions and local authorities, in what was termed a "tripartite-plus approach. "Tripartite-plus national round-table meetings on environment and the world of work were organized in the Philippines in February 1995 and in Zimbabwe in November 1994.(30)
In the Philippines, the tripartite-plus national round-table meeting identified 13 projects centred on the working environment, participation at the workplace and environmental management tools. In addition to the contribution this process has made to improved communication and consultation within and between the ILO's tripartite constituents regarding environment and the world of work, the implementation of these projects has also led to a large number of practical outputs, including a handbook on "Greening the workplace; training courses based on three basic environmental education modules applicable to workers and employers in the services, manufacturing, and recycling sectors; a model environmental provision which can be incorporated in collective bargaining agreements; training on environmental impact assessment (EIA) at the local level; and the launching of an environmental information centre for labour and industry.
In Chile, six projects were undertaken on a variety of subjects, including workers' education, safety and health and the environment, environmental management, environmental and occupational hazard mapping, the use of pesticides, and a code of practice for the forestry sector. While the projects in Chile produced useful results two have particular potential for replication in other countries. In the mining sector, the sectoral trade union federation, government health and inspectorate services and a major company collaborated in expanding and adapting the procedure for occupational hazard mapping to cover environmental factors. As a result, occupational and environmental hazards were systematically identified, evaluated and placed in order of priority for remedial action. This experience will be promoted as a new way to deal with occupational safety and health and environmental risks in other sectors and countries. Similarly, the development of a code of forestry practice demonstrated the close links between forestry productivity, environmental impact and work safety. Labour and environmental regulations are often too specific to be effectively applied in forestry. The specialized codes of practice drawn up by the social partners in the forestry sector themselves fill this gap and correspond closely to the needs of practitioners. Social partners in the forestry sector in other countries have requested ILO assistance in developing similar codes adapted to their specific needs.
In Zimbabwe, one of the most important priorities relating to environment and world of work identified by the "tripartite-plus" round-table meeting was housing, i.e. the direct linkages between the health and environmental constraints connected with housing (e.g., lack of clean water, sanitation, transportation and severely restricted living space) and the quality of work and life of workers. One of the projects undertaken consisted of a detailed assessment of current housing needs,(31) as well as a survey of home-based enterprises in Harare.(32) Other projects included a training programme on occupational safety, health and environment for employers' representatives in the mining sector; a review of publications and "tripartite-plus" consultation on safety, health and environmental issues related to export processing zones; and training workshops on health and safety and the environment and on industrial relations and environment for workers and local community officials.
Where national "tripartite-plus" meetings were held, they created a unique forum for a wide-ranging discussion of environment and world of work issues, ongoing activities and future priorities. These three country programmes provided an opportunity for the ILO's active partnership policy and system of MDTs to act as a catalyst in support of the development of new partnerships and alliances at the enterprise, local and national level.
A series of desk reviews(33) covering a number of countries demonstrated some of the new approaches adopted to the environment and the world of work in response to Agenda 21. These reviews provide a unique and innovative perspective of national efforts and priorities related to the follow-up of the UNCED Conference. They also show that world of work and environmental concerns have been the focus of increased attention in the past decade, but are often still regarded as being unrelated. In many countries, considerable efforts have been made to promote and develop links between environmental quality and working conditions, while in others environmental considerations are still considered a luxury. These reviews demonstrate that the majority of countries consider tripartism to be an important prerequisite for achieving sustainable development and combating poverty. A large number of the case-studies point to innovative examples of better working practices that take environmental considerations into account, including joint efforts to create new "green employment. They reveal that measures are being taken to improve working conditions through employee training and participation in development programmes. They also document the creation and support of local Agenda 21 initiatives that are geared towards improving social, economic and environmental conditions in local communities.
Conditions of work
Globalization and competition, changing patterns of work, the requirement for increased flexibility and the needs and expectations of workers, are causing many countries to take a hard look at the regulation of working conditions. A major focus of the ILO's work during the biennium continued to be to assist member States provide basic worker protection and at the same time to encourage improvements beyond minimum standards. Work on new standards for part-time work and homeworkers was complemented by the development of materials for diagnostic and training activities, the collection and dissemination of examples of enterprise programmes to assist workers with family responsibilities, and studies on increasingly important issues such as older workers and working time.Work expanded on standards and guidance to protect workers engaged in what are sometimes termed "atypical" employment relationships. In 1994, the International Labour Conference adopted the Part-Time Work Convention (No. 175) and its accompanying Recommendation (No. 182) -- the first standards entirely devoted to the protection of workers who did not work full time. (See box.) A first discussion of proposed standards on home work was held at the 82nd Session of the Conference in 1995 with a view to the adoption of new instruments at the 83rd Session in 1996. Two studies on home work were also prepared: one containing examples from eight countries of action programmes to protect homeworkers(34) and another on their employment and working conditions, including examples of "best practice".(35)
With more women joining the labour force, there is growing pressure for policies and practical measures which assist both men and women to
Part-time work standards
Part-time work now accounts for an important share of the labour
market in an increasing number of countries. It is a form of work that is
particularly prevalent among women. However, national labour legislation and
social protection systems have mostly been designed with full-time workers in
mind, with the result that the protection afforded to part-time workers may in
some respects be lower than that of their full-time colleagues. The
remuneration rates of part-time workers also tend on average to be lower than
those of comparable full-time workers.
It was to address the specific needs of these workers and the growing
importance of part-time work that the International Labour Conference adopted
the Part-time Work Convention (No. 175) and its accompanying Recommendation
(No. 182) at its 81st Session in 1994. The instruments mark important progress
by establishing a standard definition for part-time workers, who are considered
to be employed persons "whose normal hours of work are less than those of
comparable full-time workers".
The principal provisions of the Convention concern the issue of how equality
of treatment is to be applied to part-time workers. The Convention includes a
requirement that measures be taken to ensure that part-time workers receive the
same protection as full-time workers in respect of the right to organize,
occupational safety and health and discrimination in employment and occupation.
The condition of equivalence, which includes the calculation of cash benefits
in proportion to hours of work, is applied in other areas, including statutory
social security schemes based on occupational activity, maternity protection,
termination of employment, sick leave and paid annual leave and paid public
holidays.
Under the terms of the Convention, measures also have to be taken to ensure
that part-time workers do not, solely because they work part time, receive a
basic wage which, calculated proportionately, is lower than that of comparable
full-time workers.
Because of the number of women who work part time, the instruments constitute
an important addition to the ILO's standards relating to equality of treatment.
The principles set out in the Convention were taken into account in the
Platform for Action adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women. |
The ageing of the population is increasingly recognized as a phenomenon which is changing the structure of societies and the labour force. However, labour market policies in industrialized countries over the past two decades have tended to exclude older workers prematurely from the labour force, thus multiplying the burden of ageing dependants on the working population and on social security systems. The contradictions of these two developments and possible approaches to reversing early retirement trends are discussed in a comparative study, based on previous work on older workers. Published in the World Labour Report 1995, the study received worldwide media attention. More than 200 articles were published by major newspapers and news agencies and many television and radio programmes featured highlights of the study.
Developments in information technology make employees increasingly vulnerable to sophisticated methods of data collection and surveillance. In few other circumstances is so much information of a personal nature processed over so long a period as in the employment relationship. To protect workers effectively, general provisions on data protection need to be supplemented by rules covering their specific needs. A draft code of practice on workers' privacy was prepared and submitted to member States for comments. Due to the financial situation of the Office, the Tripartite Meeting of Experts which was to examine the draft code, was postponed until 1996.
Major changes are taking place in the length of time workers are called upon to spend at work and in the organization of their hours of work. Increased pressure for greater flexibility in enterprises and efforts to adapt working time to the needs and expectations of workers are leading to the diversification of working time schedules and to the reconsideration of limits and regulations respecting working time. In the current context of high levels of unemployment and underemployment, the need to find ways of protecting and creating jobs is leading to renewed interest in the relationship between working time and employment levels and patterns. With a view to updating and extending knowledge of working time regulations and practices, information was collected and disseminated on current approaches and trends. An issue of the Conditions of Work Digest was prepared on the basic aspects of working hours, i.e., normal hours of work, overtime, rest periods and annual leave. The publication compiles basic information covering a large number of industrialized and developing countries and the relevant international standards. It describes the legislation and practice in selected countries and presents an overview of trends and issues.(38)
Occupational stress can no longer be considered an occasional isolated problem; it affects all categories of workers, workplaces and countries. As such, it is resulting in rising costs to individuals, companies and society. There is now greater awareness of the need for effective and innovative ways of dealing with the problem. Current stress control programmes at the enterprise level reflect the emergence of a promising trend for measures to be taken to eliminate the causes of the problem rather than treat its effects. In order to facilitate the dissemination of this approach, manuals were prepared on stress prevention for nursing personnel, workers in offshore operations, air traffic controllers, assembly line workers and bus drivers.(39) The manuals recommend a number of practical preventive measures which can be used at the enterprise level to eliminate the causes of stress, and improve the health and productivity of the workers concerned.
Small enterprises are a dynamic sector in most national economies and make a very significant contribution to national development. But their productivity could often be greatly improved -- as could the lives of their workers -- if the general problem of poor working conditions in such enterprises were overcome. An approach to this issue, involving voluntary action by entrepreneurs with their workforce to improve working conditions and productivity, has been developed into a programme known as Work Improvements in Small Enterprises (WISE). During the biennium, a series of technical cooperation activities using the WISE approach were carried out. These included a three-year project adopting the WISE technique in the Philippines, where a workshop on the small garment industry was also held. Seminars were held in Nepal and Indonesia and a training course was organized in Manila for facilitators from eight Asian countries. A subregional training course was organized in Bolivia for trainers from employers' organizations and training institutions from five countries; and workshops for entrepreneurs were held in Bolivia, Costa Rica and Mexico. After translating WISE training materials into Portuguese, a national programme was launched in Brazil and a seminar was held for the small garment industry in Sao Paulo. In Africa, WISE projects were launched in Zimbabwe and Swaziland. Two workshops for the small garment industry were held in the United Republic of Tanzania and training activities based on the WISE approach were included in an enterprise development project in South Africa. A collection of case-studies of the successful application of the WISE approach and its replicability was prepared during the period under review.(40) One of the case-studies showed that, one year after the manager of a small enterprise producing telephone sets in Uruguay had received training, the improvements introduced at the enterprise had been instrumental in tripling productivity. As a result of this success, the workforce of the enterprise had increased from 25 to 38. In another case in Chile, the participants at a WISE course had formed an association to exchange ideas and experience with a view to maintaining the momentum for improved productivity and conditions of work. In yet another case, following three WISE seminars in Brazil, it was found that entrepreneurs from 66 enterprises had identified and implemented over 1,000 improvements in working conditions.
Modern enterprises in an open market have to remain competitive by: continually improving the organization of their work; increasing the quality of their products; introducing a more efficient layout and better use of machinery; cutting idle time in production; and improving the skills, quality of work and commitment of their workers. As a practical tool suggesting rapid, simple and low-cost solutions for large and medium-sized enterprises, a manual was prepared on work organization and ergonomics.(41) It addresses more complex operational situations than its predecessor, Higher productivity and a better place to work, and is designed for use by entrepreneurs, training institutions and employers' organizations in all regions of the world.
Social security
International labour standards provide a framework for the development of social security systems to protect workers and their families against a range of contingencies. However, many countries have not yet been able to develop effective social protection systems. Moreover, existing systems continue to experience financial and administrative difficulties and have been unable to extend coverage beyond a relatively small section of the labour force. Countries undergoing economic restructuring face difficult choices on radical reforms to their social protection systems. Almost everywhere there is a continuing process of review and revision to reconcile demands for improved social protection with economic objectives. In this context, ILO activities during the biennium were designed to assist in: the reform and adaptation of social security programmes necessary as a result of the adoption of structural adjustment policies; the establishment of a sound financial and economic basis for social security schemes; the improvement of institutional arrangements and managerial, administrative and training capacities; and the extension of coverage to other sections of the population.The approach adopted in these activities was to provide both global and country-specific guidance and assistance. Guidance of a general nature was provided through the preparation of a manual on health-care planning and financing designed to assist policy-makers, planners and ILO advisory staff.(42) The manual is a sequel to a joint WHO/ILO guidebook on social health insurance development published in 1994.(43) These methodological tools for health-care planners were supplemented by a micro-computer- based generic model for the financial analysis of statutory health-care systems. Valuable information and guidance also continued to be provided for policy-makers, planners and international experts in the statistical survey of the cost of social security throughout the world. The 14th inquiry was completed and the 15th is now under way.(44) This survey is unique in its depth of coverage. In view of the global debate on the affordability of social protection, it will assume even greater importance as background information for policy formulation.
The majority of the ILO's activities in the field of social security took the form of the provision of advisory services and technical cooperation to member States for the development or restructuring of their social security schemes. In this work, it was often necessary to recommend that a compre-hensive review be undertaken of national social protection arrangements as a basis for reform and the identification of a long-term strategic framework, rather than a series of piecemeal measures. In this context, the link between economic restructuring and the reform of social protection is almost universally recognized. As a consequence, the ILO's technical cooperation activities in the field of social security have been carried out not only with its traditional counterparts, ministries of labour and the social partners, but also with the ministries responsible for health and social welfare and, in particular, ministries of finance and planning. It has been an encouraging sign that as a result member States have shown a greater tendency to seek ILO expertise to contribute to their social security reform programmes.
Comprehensive reviews of social protection systems were undertaken in a number of countries, including Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Congo, Latvia, Mexico, Morocco, the Philippines, Thailand, Ukraine, Uruguay and Zambia. Requests for assistance may to a great extent be attributed to the widespread recognition of the linkage between economic reform and the restructuring of the social security system. This has led to improved collab-oration between the ILO and the World Bank, for example in Zambia, where a joint ILO/World Bank mission made a series of recommendations which are fully consistent with ILO objectives and standards. These were accepted by the Government and are now being implemented. The ILO also collaborated with the World Bank in the development of recommendations for social security reforms in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Madagascar, Turkey and Ukraine. In other cases, such as Bulgaria and Slovakia, the ILO collaborated closely with the European Union. Technical advisory services were also provided to a number of countries, including Latvia, Mexico, Turkey and Uganda, to provide assistance in the design and development of comprehensive health-care programmes.
During the biennium, there was a shift in emphasis in technical cooperation activities in the field of social security from longer-term projects which are directly executed by the ILO (although such projects are currently being implemented in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania), to projects where the ILO's role is limited to undertaking a policy review for member States or providing them with specialist assistance at the implementation stage. As a means of facilitating the transfer of expertise and increasing the sustainability of project outputs, member States take full responsibility for the execution of the projects through the establishment of ministerial committees. This situation is reflected in the technical cooperation projects on social security reform in China, the Philippines, Slovakia and Turkey.
Arrangements for the financing of social security systems, and particularly pension schemes, lie at the heart of many of the problems experienced by member States in the field of social security. Responding to strong demand, a substantial number of financial and actuarial activities were undertaken. Advisory services were provided, actuarial evaluations and financial assessments of existing schemes undertaken and studies carried out to establish the financial feasibility of new schemes or substantial reform programmes in a number of countries, including Bulgaria, Latvia, Samoa, Slovakia, Togo, Tunisia and Zimbabwe. These activities were supplemented by the development of national training programmes and the provision of support for national quantitative model building as a means of strengthening national management capacities. An important computer-based tool was also developed for the financial management of national social protection systems (see box overleaf).
The administration of social security schemes is another area in which there is strong demand for technical assistance from the Office. Many schemes are affected by weaknesses at the operational level related to the maintenance of records, the collection of contributions and the payment of benefits on time. Other problems arise on account of inadequate coordination, a lack of clarity as to institutional roles and responsibilities, or difficulties in achieving in practice the autonomous status conferred on institutions by law. Assistance was provided at the country level through technical cooperation projects and the provision of technical advisory services. Recipient countries included Uganda and Zambia, where assistance focused on improving administrative efficiency and institutional reform, and Ukraine and Viet Nam, where advice was given on ways the systems might cope with their new responsibilities related to the growth of the private sector. At a more general level, guidance was provided through
Social protection accounting model: A tool for policy-makers
Social protection systems redistribute between 10 and 25 per cent
of GDP, depending on the level of development of the country. The social
protection system is therefore in itself a major economic factor. Yet, outside
the European Union and the OECD, hardly any countries possess tools to assist
in the financial and economic macro-management of their social protection
systems.
Spurred by the complex economic and social reform processes in the transition
countries of Central and Eastern Europe, a social accounting model was
developed to enable policy-makers to make projections and simulations of the
effects of alternative policy decisions on individual social protection schemes
and the level and structure of national social expenditure and its impact on
the state budget.
The model consists of a complex but user-friendly spreadsheet that can be run
on most personal computers. It is composed of modules covering factors such as
demographic forecasts, macroeconomic conditions and the labour market
situation, through which growth and productivity assumptions can be translated
into age and sex-specific employment figures. Based on these forecasts, the
model estimates expenditure on the various categories of social benefits, the
total insurable earnings of employed persons and the resulting social
contributions in the various branches of social insurance, as well as the
financial commitment of the government or other public budgets to the financing
of benefits. It also makes a crude forecast of the impact of social protection
on the development of the public deficit.
At the request of the European Union, the model was first applied to Slovakia,
where it demonstrated for policy-makers the close inverse relationship between
economic growth and total social spending. It also showed how the level and
structure of social expenditure could be influenced by various policy
decisions, even within a relatively short period. The model is now also being
used in Thailand and Turkey. |
International Social Security Association
The work of the ILO in the field of social security continued to be complemented by that of the International Social Security Association (ISSA), a non-governmental organization representing national social security institutions. In December 1995, the ISSA's membership was 245 affiliated member institutions and 96 associate members from a total of 130 countries. ISSA's activities are based on the exchange of information and administrative experience in the fields of social security and occupational safety and health through the organization of international and regional meetings and training seminars. These activities are supplemented by research work and information activities.One of the objectives of the ISSA is to improve the training of middle-level managerial staff in social security institutions. The participants in its training courses are instructed in the use of specially prepared training manuals and other training materials, which they can then use to train their colleagues.
With a view to providing member institutions with greater support in the field of social security statistics and actuarial studies, the ISSA established a worldwide network of social security actuaries and statisticians. Nearly 200 actuaries and statisticians were also brought together to exchange experience and ideas during the International Conference of Social Security Actuaries and Statisticians, held in Greece in June 1995. The participants at the Conference set up an executive committee to coordinate and develop the ISSA's activities in this respect.
During the biennium, the ISSA also held a number of meetings and issued publications on the most topical subjects affecting its member institutions, such as the impact of structural adjustment programmes on social security in Africa,(46) migration and social security,(47) the role of social security in tomorrow's world(48) and developments in the field of social security in Central and Eastern Europe.(49)
To improve the dissemination of information on social security, ISSA commenced the development, in coordination with the ILO, of an international integrated system for social security information consisting of documentary data on social security schemes throughout the world, descriptions of these schemes and quantitative data on social protection at the national level.
Notes (1).Gender equality at work: Strategies towards the 21st century, 1995.
(2).Women workers: An annotated bibliography, 1983-94, 1995.
(3).Women workers and gender equality: Turning vision into reality for the 21st century (forthcoming).
(4).Measuring gender wage differentials in job segregation, by P. Gonzalez and M. Watts, IDP Women/WP-24.
(5).Gender issues in the world of work: Briefing kit, INT/93/MO9/NET; and Gender issues in the world of work: A gender training package (forthcoming).
(6).Occupational segregation of men and women in the world, by R. Anker (manuscript).
(7).Women workers in manufacturing, 1971-1991, by S. Tomoda (Sectoral Activities Programme, Working Paper No. 91).
(8).Remuneration and nursing personnel: An international perspective, ed. D. Marsden, 1994; and Trends and perspectives in the nursing profession (four studies) (Sectoral Activities Programme, Working Paper No. 73).
(9).Egalité des chances entre les hommes et les femmes des catégories cadres et professionnelles, by J. Lauffer (forthcoming).
(10).Enhancing women's employment: A labour market policies manual, 1996 (forthcoming).
(11).Productive employment and equity in the rural and informal sectors in Kenya (Report on the national policy workshop on optimal forms of assistance to women's employment in the rural and informal sectors, 1994).
(12).Action to assist rural women: Back home action plans and training workshops (manuscript).
(13).The countries covered by the project were: Argentina, Belarus, Côte d'Ivoire, the Dominican Republic, Gabon, Indonesia, Jamaica, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, the Russian Federation, Senegal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Thailand and the United States.
(14). Employing foreign workers, by R. Böhning (forthcoming); and Sending workers abroad, by M. Abella (manuscript).
(15).International migration: Guidelines for improving data collection systems, by A.S. Oberai, R.E. Bilsborrow, G. Hugo and H. Zlotnik (forthcoming).
(16).Inventory of national legislation concerning migrant workers, Vols. I and II, 1995.
(17).Conventions internationales du travail et legislation nationales sur les travailleurs migrants: Convergences et divergences (French only).
(18).Social security for migrant workers (manuscript).
(19).Protecting the least protected: Rights of migrant workers and the role of trade unions: Guidelines for trade unions, 1996.
(20).Arbeitsmarkt-Diskriminierung gegenüber ausländischen Arbeitnehmern in Deutschland,by A. Goldberg, D. Mourinho and U. Kulke (International migrations papers, No. 7); Discrimination against migrant workers and ethnic minorities in access to employment in the Netherlands, by F. Bovenkerk, M.J.I. Gras and D. Ramsoedh (International migrations papers, No. 4); and La discriminación laboral a los trabajadores inmigrantes en España, by M.A. de Prada, W. Actis, C. Pereda and R. Pérez Molina (International migrations papers, No. 9).
(21).The work of strangers: A survey of international labour migration, by P. Stalker, 1994.
(22).Migrants, refugees and international cooperation, joint contribution by the ILO, IOM and UNHCR to the International Conference on Population and Development, 1994.
(23).Employment prospects for disabled persons in transition countries, 1995.
(24).Safety, health and welfare on construction sites: A training manual, 1995.
(25).International Basic Safety Standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources, Vienna, 1994; and Radiation protection and the safety of radiation sources; Safety series: Safety fundamentals, IAEA GOV/2798.
(26).Ergonomic checkpoints, 1996.
(27).See Report of Tripartite Advisory Meeting on Environment and the World of Work, Geneva, 1992 (GB.254/5/6).
(28).A National Chemical Safety profile and report of the National Tripartite Workshop exists for each of the three pilot countries.
(29).A preliminary assessment of the capacity-building needs related to the introduction of harmonized systems of classification and labelling of chemicals, 1996.
(30).See: Report on the interdepartmental project on environment and the world of work, Report of the Tripartite-plus Round-table Meeting, Harare, 1994; and Environment and the world of work, Proceedings of the Tripartite-plus Round-table Meeting, Manila, 1995. Copies available on request.
(31).Documentation produced by the project includes: Preliminary literature review of housing needs and supply issues, Harare, 1995, and Preliminary reports of interviews with consumer/supply finance groups, Harare, 1995.
(32).Copies of the results and analysis of the survey are available on request.
(33). National desk reviews were prepared concerning the following countries: Australia, Burkina Faso, China, Côte d'Ivoire, Denmark, Ghana, Italy, Japan, Kenya, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Sweden, the United Republic of Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, the United States and Zimbabwe. Copies available on request.
(34).Action programmes for the protection of homeworkers, ten case-studies from around the world, edited by U. Huws, 1995.
(35).Employment of homeworkers: Examples of good practice, by U. Huws and S. Podro, Working Paper CONDI/T/WP.5/1995.
(36).Balancing work and family: Enterprise examples, by L. Wirth (manuscript).
(37).Combining work and elder care: A dialogue for now and the future, edited by I.Hoskins (manuscript).
(38).Conditions of Work Digest: Trends in working time, Vol. 14, 1995.
(39).Occupational stress and stress prevention in air traffic control, by Professor G. Costa, CONDI/T/WP.6/1995. Working Papers on the other four topics are forthcoming.
(40).Cuando la pequeña empresa quiere: Doce iniciativas para mejorar condiciones de trabajo y productividad (forthcoming).
(41).Manual of work organization and ergonomics (manuscript).
(42).Practical guidance for social health insurance (manuscript).
(43).Social health insurance: A guidebook for planning, by C.Normand and A.Weber (WHO/ILO), 1994.
(44).The cost of social security: Fourteenth international inquiry, 1987-1989, Comparative tables, 1996.
(45).Making social protection work; The challenge of tripartism in social protection governance for countries in transition, ILO/Ministry of Labour of Cyprus, 1995.
(46).The impact of structural adjustment programmes on social security in African countries, Social Security Documentation, African Series No. 15.
(47).Migration: A worldwide challenge for social security, Studies and Research No. 35.
(48).Social security tomorrow: Permanence and change, Studies and Research No. 36.
(49).Restructuring social security in
Central and Eastern Europe: A guide to recent developments, policy issues and
options, 1994.
